Blueberries are highly nutritious fruits or berries with great anti- ageing potentials. They are rich source of important vitamins and minerals aiding to improve the health of bones, heart , brain and nervous system.
Nutritional facts about blueberries
The blueberries are fruits with high Aggregate Nutrient Density Index (ANDI). This index rates foods based on their vitamin and minerals content, phytochemical composition, and antioxidant capacity. They also provide several health benefits to the body.
They are rich sources of vitamin C, vitamin K, minerals manganese, potassium, calcium and dietary fiber. Blueberries are one of the abundant sources of anthocyanins and other polyphenols antioxidants.
Commercially cultivated highly nutritious blue berry species include high bush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L.), rabbit eye blueberry (V. virgatum Aiton), lowbush blueberry (V. angustifolium Aiton), and European blueberry (V. myrtillus L.).
Blueberries are also enriched with, beta-carotene, folate, choline, and manganese, anthocyanins, vitamins, and minerals & a diverse range of phenolic compounds such as quercetin, kaempferol, myricetin, and chlorogenic acid. These contribute to the antioxidant capacity of blueberries.
Health benefits of blueberries
Blue berries are rich source of antioxidants
The lowbush blueberries [Vaccinium angustifolium] have more anthocyanin and polyphenols with antioxidant properties. Anthocyanins are flavonoid antioxidants. In addition, they contain vitamins having antioxidant properties.
Neuroprotective effect
Owing to the presence of antioxidants in abundance blueberries possess neuroprotective properties. Consumption of blue berries help to prevent neuronal damage in the brain and nervous system. This is very crucial in preventing age related and free radical mediated dementia of various types.
The past few decades have witnessed a surge in Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease. Neuronal damage stemming from known and unknown causes contributes to dementia or memory loss associated with these disease conditions. Blue berries help to prevent free radical damage induced neuronal degeneration and prevent neurodegenerative diseases to a large extent.
Cardioprotective properties
Blue berries have cardioprotective effects and hence consumption of blueberries help to prevent heart attacks if combined with efficient lifestyle modifications.
One cup of blueberries can provide around 24 percent of the recommended daily value [dv] of vitamin C. Vitamin C is an effective antioxidant. It also boosts immunity as well as health of blood vessels..
Blueberries to reduce risk factors causing metabolic syndrome
Research data show that regular consumption of blueberries helps to improve the health of arteries, blood lipid levels and reduce the insulin resistance in people with metabolic syndrome. Blueberries can be consumed by diabetic people also. It do not cause a blood glucose spike on moderate intake.
Blueberries improve bone health
Blue berries also improve bone mineralization and bone health. They contain minerals such as iron, phosphorous, calcium, magnesium, manganese, zinc, and vitamin K. Each of these nutrients have great role in the formation of bones &in maintaining bone health. So, blueberries need to be added particularly in the diet of ageing population. Ageing is associated with bone density loss. Menopause is associated with estrogen deficiency associated bone thinning. Cardiac health is also compromised under declining estrogen hormones in menopausal women. Blueberries help to improve heart health as well as bone health. Minerals potassium [114mg], calcium, and magnesium along with Fiber, folate, vitamin C, vitamin B6, and phytonutrients play vital role in protecting heart health.
Blueberries delay signs of skin ageing
Blueberries are abundant source of antioxidants and vitamin C. These nutrients synergistically do good to your skin acting as collagen growth promoters to prevent wrinkles, adding strength to skin and neutralizing free radical damage to skin. They are very effective anti-ageing berries with antioxidant potential and enhances the glow of your skin.
Apart from the health benefits mentioned here blueberries provide several other good effects. They are rich in fibers and hence their role in improving cholesterol as well as digestive health are undeniable.
Blue berries are comparatively low in sodium and fat. Therefore, it can be consumed by obese and hypertensive [ having high blood pressure] people also.
In a nutshell, we can conclude that blueberries are good addition to our diet plans focusing on lifestyle modification to prevent non communicable and life style diseases.
Buddhist art of Indian subcontinent (c. 150 BCE – c. 500 CE) has imbibed the art of other religions & geographical regions due to foreign influence overtime. Sanchi, Bharhut and Amaravati are embodiments of Buddhist art forms. Buddhist stupas and sculptures were built during the reign of various dynasties who ruled the subcontinent
Buddhism in Indian artan overview
Indian art forms are huge in number and it encompasses painting, sculpture, pottery, and textile arts. When you mention Indian arts it includes the art forms of Indian subcontinent existed since many centuries. Geographically, the art spans a wide area encompassing the current India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, and at times eastern Afghanistan.
The Indian art forms are intricately crosslinked with the religions of the subcontinent. Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and Islam have been depicted in the art marvellously.
Foreign influence on Indian art can be seen in various art forms of Indian subcontinent. Central Asia, Iran, and Europe had tremendous influence in developing Indian art due to overseas trade relations with this land.
Sanchi, Bharhut and Amaravati are embodiments of Buddhist art forms with statues and stupas. In these sites stupas are surrounded by ceremonial fences with four profusely carved toranas or ornamental gateways facing the cardinal directions. The Buddhist art monuments are built in stone, though clearly adopting forms developed in wood. Mathura was the most important centre in this development, which applied to Hindu and Jain art as well as Buddhist.
The caves at Ajanta, Karle, Bhaja etc. contain ancient sculptures. Buddhists gave emphasis on making statues of Buddha, influenced by Hindu and Jain religious figurative art.
Greko-Buddhist influence
The Greko-Buddhist influence on art was evident after the conquests of Alexander the Great. This fusion developed in the far north-west of India, especially Gandhara in modern Afghanistan and Pakistan.
BuddhistArt during reign of Kushana empire
The Indian Kushan Empire who reigned northern India had built large statues that were portraits of the royal dynasty
Kushan Empire (c. 30 CE – c. 375 CE) was a syncretic empire in central and southern Asia, From 127 to 151 CE,[ Gandhara] reached the zenith of its glory under the reign of Kanishka. In this period, Kushan art inherited the Greko-Buddhist art.
Mahayana Buddhism flourished, and the depictions of Buddha as a human form first appeared in art wearing a monk’s robe and a long length of cloth draped over the left shoulder and around the body.
The distinctive feature of Gandharan art is its connection to naturalism of Hellenistic art. The naturalistic features seen in Gandharan sculptures include the three-dimensional treatment of the drapery, with unregularized folds that are in realistic patterns of random shape and thickness.
The physical form of the Buddha and his bodhisattvas are well-defined, solid, and muscular, with swelling chests, arms, and abdomens in these art works.
BuddhistArt during Shunga dynasty’s reign
The Buddhist stupa from the Shunga Dynasty is The Great Stupa at Sanchi, believed to be founded by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka c. 273 BCE – 232 BCE during the Maurya Empire. The Great Stupa was enlarged to its present diameter of 120 feet, covered with a stone casing, topped with a balcony and umbrella, and encircled with a stone railing during the Shunga Dynasty c. 150 BCE – 50 BCE.
In addition to architecture, another significant art form of the Shunga Dynasty is the elaborately moulded terracotta plaques. As seen in previous examples from the Mauryan Empire, a style in which surface detail, nudity, and sensuality is continued in the terracotta plaques of the Shunga Dynasty. The most common figural representations seen on these plaques are women, probably goddesses, who are mostly shown as bare-chested and wearing elaborate headdresses.
BuddhistArt during Shatha vahana dynasty rule
Satavahana dynasty (c. 1st/3rd century BCE – c. 3rd century CE) built Amaravati Stupa, the Karla Caves, and the first phase of the Ajanta Caves.
Relief sculptures of Buddhist figures and epigraphs written in Brahmi characters are often found in divine places specific to Buddhism.
To celebrate the divine, Satavahana people also built stone images as the decoration in Buddhist architectures.
Furthermore, the Satavahanas coins made primarily in copper, lead and potin depicts arts of the period.
Gupta art (c. 320 CE – c. 550 CE) of Buddhism
The Gupta period is the golden era for north Indian art and it is found in the Ajanta Caves; the surviving works are chiefly religious sculptures. The period witnessed the emergence of the iconic carved stone deity in Hindu art, as well as the Buddha-figure and Jain tirthankara figures.
The prominent centres of sculpture were Mathura Sarnath, and Gandhara, perhaps the last the centre of Greco-Buddhist art.
Buddhist art in current India
Most of the Buddhist art forms as sculptures, stupas, paintings still exist in Indian subcontinent although a few are in a dilapidated condition due to adverse climate, invasions and wars. In current India one can find Buddhist monuments in various states.
West Bengal: Bharatpur Buddhist Monastery Complex.
These monuments of art at various historical destinations may provide any art afficianados or visitors an elaborate account of the emergence and growth of Buddhism in the subcontinent and how its ideologies rooted in this land. The history Buddhism and art is inseparably merged with the geopolitical history of Indian subcontinent and visiting these destinations may enkindle the principles of Ahimsa and nonviolence in the traveller’s mind and soul along with the aesthetic and visual appeal the monumental arts can offer.
Our ecosystems and its sustainability are intricately linked to numerous factors ranging from human activities to climate change which operate conjointly. The conservation of ecosystem is crucial for the existence of mankind and biodiversity in the coming decades as degradation or decline of ecosystem is associated with natural catastrophes which can wipe out numerous species from this earth forever.
To conserve the integrity of our ecosystem fundamentally an understanding about the structure and function of ecosystems is crucial.
What constitutes an ecosystem?
An ecosystem is a community of living organisms including plants, animals, microbes which interact with each other and the non-living environment (water, soil, air, sunlight) as a functional unit. An ecosystem is characterized by nutrient cycles and energy flows, and can range in size from a puddle to a forest or ocean. The term “ ecosystem “ was first introduced by British biologist Sir Arthur Tansley in 1935.
Ecosystem is regarded as the functional unit of ecology which is the study of our environment and its organisms. Ecosystems denote the interactions between living organisms and their environment.
Ecosystems can be classified in different ways. It can be natural, such as forests, oceans, and grasslands, or human-made, such as agricultural systems and urban areas..
Over a few decades the idea of “ conservation of ecosystems” is fostered all over the globe due to the increased awareness about its role in disaster risk reduction which is simply denoted as Eco-DRR. Natural disasters of high magnitude as well as man-made catastrophes are potent enough to erase many species including mankind or a part of ecosystem altogether.
Moreover, human survival is dependent solely on the ecosystem that provide food, water, and other essential resources.
However, it is a fierce fact that human activities pose great threat to our ecosystem in the form of deforestation, pollution, and overexploitation of natural resources. The long-term sustainability and the preservation of this planet earth for future generations is a task that requires tireless efforts for conservation of ecosystem.
Geohazards such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides, and tsunamis could be the consequences of ecosystem degradation and vice versa can happen causing extinction of the ecosystems.
Ecosystem conservation refers to the protection, management, and restoration of ecosystems, and it focuses on maintaining their structure, function, and the biodiversity they support. This strategic movement is implemented giving emphasis to the interdependence of species and their habitats.
Ecosystem conservation strategies underscore the establishment of protected areas, habitat restoration, and the integration of biodiversity conservation.
Types of Ecosystems
1.Terrestrial Ecosystems:
Terrestrial ecosystems are those that are found on land, such as forests, grasslands, and deserts.
Grassland ecosystem is dominated by grasses and herbs.
Forests include the plants, trees, animals µorganism. Forests act as a major carbon sink and regulate temperature and climate.
2.Aquatic Ecosystems: Aquatic ecosystems include sources of water, such as oceans, rivers, and lakes.
Tundra ecosystem is the arctic and Antarctic terrains covered with snow.
3.Urban Ecosystems:
Urban ecosystems are those man-made urban areas, such as parks, gardens, and green roofs.
Examples for ecosystems
The Amazon rainforest is a natural complex ecosystem that contains a diverse range of plant and animal species. The Amazon rainforest ecosystem is under threat of extinction from deforestation and climate change.
The Great Barrier Reef: The Great Barrier Reef is a complex marine ecosystem that includes a diverse range of marine species. The reef is under threat of extinction or degradation from pollution and climate change.
Agricultural Systems: Agricultural systems are human-made ecosystems that are used to produce food and other resources. These systems can be managed to promote sustainability and conservation.
Major issues demanding Ecosystem Management and Conservation
Habitat Loss:
Habitat loss caused by human activities such as deforestation and urbanization can endanger the biodiversity of ecosystems in various ways. Deforestation causes massive biodiversity loss through habitat destruction and species extinction.
Furthermore, it can accelerate climate change releasing stored carbon, reducing CO2 absorption. Deforestation also disrupts water cycles altering rainfall, increasing floods or droughts. It causes severe soil erosion reducing fertility and eventual desertification.
Pollution:
Environmental pollution degrades the health of ecosystems. Air pollution, water pollution, and soil contamination erode the structure of ecosystems. Toxins build up in organisms and become more concentrated up the food chain. This is called bioaccumulation. Heavy metals, pesticides, plastics, and air contaminants (NO3, SO2) bioaccumulate and eventually lead to genetic damage, reproductive failure, and alter the ecosystem resilience.
Pollutants annihilate organisms either directly or by destroying habitats, cause species extinction.
Overexploitation of Natural Resources:
Overexploitation of natural resources cause habitat loss, biodiversity decline, soil erosion, water scarcity and disrupting food webs. For instance, overfishing and mining, undermine the sustainability of ecosystems.
Invasive Species:
An invasive species is a non-native organism (plant, animal, microbe) that spreads aggressively in a new environment, causing harm in multiple ways. They outcompeting with native species disrupt the ecological balance. It is a mammoth threat to biodiversity and ecosystem as they can cause extinctions as well as threaten endangered species. To be termed as invasive, they must adapt quickly, reproduce rapidly, and cause significant damage. Eg: kudzu vine, zebra mussels, and lionfish.
Ecosystem Management and Conservation
Ecosystem management and conservation involve the following:
Understanding Ecosystems:
Understanding the structure and function of ecosystem involves understanding the interactions between living organisms and their physical and chemical environment.
Monitoring Ecosystems:
Monitoring ecosystems means collecting data on ecosystem structure and function. This data is used to inform management decisions and track changes in ecosystem health.
Ecosystem Restoration:
Ecosystem restoration is the process of restoring degraded ecosystems to their natural state. This process includes reforestation, habitat restoration, and water quality improvement.
Sustainable Use:
Sustainable use of ecosystems involves using natural resources in a way that ensures their long-term sustainability. This can involve activities such as sustainable forestry, fisheries management, and agricultural practices.
Policy and Regulation:
This involves establishing laws and regulations that promote sustainable use and conservation of ecosystems.
Conclusion
To sustain on this planet for the generations in the decades and centuries yet to come, we need to conserve our ecosystems from today. Moreover, there is a dire need to mitigate the impact of bioaccumulated toxins in the food chain to survive on this planet at least for the average life span, keeping the quality of life in good state, free from morbidities. To achieve this daunting task a strategic management plan has to be implemented by authorities with participation of common people to preserve the resources and biodiversity with its ecosystem for the posterity.
Breast feeding is very important for the new born baby as breast milk is the major, safe , immunity boosting food for the baby. The antibodies in the breast milk protects the new born against several infections.
Breast milk
The first milk is called colostrum and milk secretion from breasts begins in small amounts and gradually its amount increases. The breast milk production begins in larger amounts between 2 and 4 days after delivery.
On the third day, an infant is normally sucking about 300–400 ml per 24 hours, and on the fifth day 500–800 ml. From day 7 to 14, the milk is called transitional, and after 2 weeks it is called mature milk.
What are the benefits of breast milk for the baby
Major source of energy & nutrients
Boost immunity against infections
Easily digested
Nutritional facts about breast milk
Breast milk contains about 3.5 g of fat per 100 ml of milk, which provides energy
Breast-milk fat is long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (docosahexaenoic acid or DHA, and arachidonic acid or ARA) that are not available in other milks. These fatty acids are vital for the neurological development.
The Breast milk contains about 7 g lactose per 100 ml, which is more than in most other milks, and a significant source of energy. Breast milk also contains oligosaccharides, which provide protection against infection
The concentration of protein in breast milk (0.9 g per 100 ml) is lower than in animal milks. Therefore, easily digestible and no overload on kidneys of the newborn baby.
Breast milk of a healthy mother contains almost all essential vitamins for the infant except vitamin D.
The breast milk contains minerals iron and zinc in relatively low concentration, but their bioavailability and absorption are high.
Breast milk contains several immunity boosting factors to protect against infections such as:
a] secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA), which coats the intestinal mucosa and prevents bacteria from entering the cells;
b] white blood cells which can kill micro-organisms;
c] lysozyme and lactoferrins which can kill bacteria, viruses and fungi;
d] oligosacccharides which prevent bacteria from attaching to mucosal surfaces.
Other bioactive factors
Epidermal growth factor present in breast milk stimulates maturation of the lining of the infant’s intestine, making them able to digest and absorb nutrients.
What is colostrum and why is it important to baby?
Colostrum is the special milk that is secreted in the first 2–3 days after delivery.
It is produced only in small quantities, about 40–50 ml on the first day but this first milk is very vital for the baby’s health.
Colostrum is rich in white cells and antibodies which are crucial for immunity.
This first milk colostrum contains protein, minerals and fat-soluble vitamins (A, E and K) than breast milk formed on later days.
Colostrum helps to protect the infant from infections due to the presence of white cells and antibodies.
The epidermal growth factor helps to prepare the lining of the gut to receive the nutrients in milk. It is important that infants receive colostrum, and not other feeds, at this time.
Breast feeding -important for mother &baby
Breast milk is vital for boosting the immunity of the new born as it is
rich in nutrients and immunity boosting antibodies and other factors.
Moreover, breast milk is the major food for the infant for about six months until other nutrient rich food is started.
Also, some studies show that breastfed children perform in a better way on intelligence tests. It is shown that breast fed children generally do not develop obesity later in life. According to studies breast feeding protects mother against the risk of breast and ovarian cancers.
Positioning the mother and baby during breast feeding
To be well attached at the breast for effective suckling of milk, a baby and his or her mother need to be properly positioned. There are many positions for effective suckling during feeding, but a few important points need to be followed in any position.
Position of the mother
The mother can be sitting or lying down or standing, a she prefers. However, she needs to be relaxed and comfortable, and free from strain, particularly of her back. If she is sitting, her back needs to be supported, and she should be able to hold the baby at her breast without leaning forward.
Position of the baby
The baby can breastfeed in several different positions in relation to the mother:
across her chest and abdomen, under her arm, or alongside her body.
Whatever the position of the mother, and the baby, four important points about the position of the baby’s body that are important to observe.
The baby’s body should be straight, not bent or twisted.
The baby’s head can be slightly extended at the neck, which helps his or her chin to be close in to the breast.
The baby should be facing the breast. The nipples usually point slightly downwards, so the baby should not be flat against the mother’s chest or abdomen, but turned slightly on his or her back able to see the mother’s face.
The baby’s body should be close to the mother which enables the baby to be close to the breast, and to take a large mouthful.
The infant should be supported during feeding. The baby may be supported on the bed or a pillow, or the mother’s lap or arm. She should not support only the baby’s head and neck. She should not grasp the baby’s bottom, as this can pull him or her too far out to the side, and make it difficult for the baby to get his or her chin and tongue under the areola.
These points about positioning are especially important for young infants during the first two months of life.
Breast feeding not only provides the sufficient food and immunity to the newborn baby. It develops a bonding between mother and child which is vital for the mental development of the baby. It is recommended to continue breast feeding till the baby grows to the age of 2years if mother still has sufficient secretion of milk.
written by dr sanjana p
References for further reading
1. WHO. Infant feeding: the physiological basis. Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 1989;67(Suppl.):1–107. [PMC ] https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2702124/
2.Riordan J. Breastfeeding and human lactation. Boston, USA: Jones and Bartlett; 2004. The biological specificity of breast milk.
3.Butte N, Lopez-Alarcon MG, Garza C. Nutrient adequacy of exclusive breastfeeding for the term infant during the first six months of life. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2002.
Aloe Vera is a widely and extensively used ingredient in cosmetic industry since its potential in anti-ageing of the skin is unraveled. Aloe Vera is one of the best natural agents capable of reducing fine lines and wrinkles on the ageing skin. Its potential to intensely hydrate your skin providing a moisturized, supple look makes it the favorite ingredient in many brands of face packs.
Aloe is a plant that grows in hot, dry climates in subtropics. The scientific name of Aloe vera is Aloe barbadensis miller. It belongs to Asphodelaceae (Liliaceae) family.
Aloe Vera plant has triangular, fleshy leaves with serrated edges. Its flowers may be yellow tubular and its fruit contain numerous seeds.
The leaves of Aloe Vera are composed of three layers. An inner clear gel that contains 99% water and rest is made of glucomannans, amino acids, lipids, sterols and vitamins. The middle layer of latex with the bitter yellow sap contains anthraquinones and glycosides.
The outer thick layer has protective function and helps to produce carbohydrates and proteins.
The story of Aloe Vera while flipping through the pages of history.
Aloe Vera has been used as a cosmetic since antiquity. The ancient Greek scientists had given this plant great importance. The Egyptians considered Aloe Vera as “the plant of immortality.”
The name Aloe Vera is derived from the Arabic word “Alloeh” meaning “shining bitter substance,” while “vera” in Latin means “true.”
Aloe Vera has gathered immense popularity since time immemorial as a medicinal plant in Greece, Egypt, India, Mexico, Japan and China for centuries.
It is a curious and interesting fact that Egyptian queens Nefertiti and Cleopatra used Aloe Vera gel as one of the main ingredients of their regular beauty regimes.
The Macedonian emperor Alexander the Great, and Italian explorer and navigator Christopher Columbus were aware of its healing properties and used aloe vera to treat wounded soldiers.
Aloe vera is grown in dry arid regions of India, mostly cultivated in Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
Nutritive value of Aloe vera
Aloe Vera is an abundant source of several important vitamins and minerals. It contains vitamin A (beta-carotene), C and E, which are antioxidants. Aloe Vera is also a great source of vitamin B12, folic acid, and choline. Minerals calcium, chromium, copper, selenium, magnesium, manganese, potassium, sodium and zinc are also present in Aloe Vera.
Aloe Vera has anti-inflammatory properties due to the presence of enzyme Bradykinase. It helps to reduce excessive inflammation when applied to the skin topically.
Good effects of Aloe Vera on your skin
Aloe Vera has been a gathering unprecedented significance in the cosmetic industry, as various clinical trials and studies have vividly suggested the potential of aloe Vera as a good moisturizing and hydrating agent for the skin. It is an excellent topical agent having anti-ageing properties and used for enhancing the beauty of skin reducing wrinkles considerably.
Aloe Vera is used as one of the major ingredients in several natural face packs and hair packs to accentuate the beauty.
Aloe Vera possesses several properties beneficial to skin &hair.
Antioxidant properties
Aloe Vera is rich in vitamins A (beta-carotene), C and E, which are antioxidants and helps to remove or free radicals causing oxidative stress to your skin.
Anti-inflammatory action
Bradykinase enzyme in aloe Vera helps to reduce excessive inflammation to the skin as a topical agent
Antibacterial properties
Aloe vera is a source of Lupeol, salicylic acid, urea nitrogen, cinnamonic acid, phenols and sulfur. All these have inhibitory action on fungi, bacteria and viruses.
Wound healing
Aloe Vera has polysaccharide compounds which can increase skin fibroblast activity and proliferation, and thus collagen production which may lead to wound healing and repair. Aloe gel not only increases collagen content of the wound but also changes collagen composition (more type III) and increased the degree of collagen cross linking. Due to these properties, aloe Vera gel can boost wound contraction and increased the breaking strength of resulting scar tissue of wound.
An increased production of hyaluronic acid and dermatan sulfate in the granulation tissue of a healing wound following oral or topical treatment with aloe vera has been reported.
Anti-ageing properties
Aloe Vera also has Glucomannan, a mannose-rich polysaccharide, and gibberellin, a growth hormone which can increase collagen production which gives strength and tightness to your skin preventing wrinkles.
Furthermore, the antioxidant vitamins A (beta-carotene), C and E protect your skin from free radical mediated injury or oxidative stress.
Anti-inflammatory properties
Bradykinase enzyme in aloe Vera helps to reduce excessive inflammation on skin. Aloe Vera can prevent excessive inflammation on skin tissue as It inhibits the cyclooxygenase pathway and reduces prostaglandin E2 production from arachidonic acid.
Recently, the novel anti-inflammatory compound called C-glucosyl chromone has been isolated from aloe vera gel extracts.
Aloe vera hydrates your skin.
Aloe Vera improves hydration of your skin and gives moisturized supple look. Mucopolysaccharides in aloe Vera facilitates binding moisture into the skin.
Protects against U V radiation damage to skin
Aloe vera gel as a topical application has a protective effect against radiation damage to the skin. A study shows that following the administration of aloe vera gel, an antioxidant protein, metallothionein, is generated in the skin, which scavenges hydroxyl radicals. It also prevents suppression of superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase in the skin. It reduces the production and release of skin keratinocyte-derived immunosuppressive cytokines such as interleukin-10 (IL-10).
Skin diseases are improved by aloe Vera
Topical use of aloe is promoted for acne, lichen planus (a very itchy rash on the skin or in the mouth), oral submucous fibrosis, burning mouth syndrome, burns, and radiation-induced skin toxicity.
Is aloe Vera safe for consumption?
Generally, it is believed that prolonged use of laxative has been linked to increased risk of colorectal cancer. Laxative effect may cause electrolyte imbalances also. According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration ruling of 2002 manufacturers need to remove aloe from over-the-counter laxative products because of a lack of safety data. Anthraquinones present in latex are a potent laxative. It increases intestinal water content, stimulates mucus secretion and increases intestinal peristalsis. Aloe Vera preparations in over dose may produce abdominal cramps, diarrhea, red urine, hepatitis, dependency or worsening of constipation. So excessive intake of aloe vera is not recommended.
However, it’s very safe and effective on skin as an anti-ageing topically applied agent. Those who have allergy to raw aloe vera gel may use synthetic or company made aloe vera gels of various brands.
Contraindication to consume aloe vera:
1. The intake of aloe Vera is contraindicated in people having known allergy to plants in the Liliaceae family.
2. Oral aloe is not recommended during pregnancy as it may stimulate uterine contractions.
3.It is contraindicated in breastfeeding mothers, as it may sometime causes gastrointestinal upsets to the baby.
Clinical trials data for benefits of aloe Vera on skin diseases
Seborrheic dermatitis, psoriasis vulgaris, genital herpes, skin burns, diabetes (type 2), HIV infection, cancer prevention, ulcerative colitis. Pressure ulcers, mucositis, radiation dermatitis, acne vulgaris, lichen planus, frostbite, aphthous stomatitis, and constipation have been benefited by aloe vera gel application as a topical agent.
Results of studies regarding the role of aloe Vera on wound healing are mixed with some studies reporting positive results while others showing no benefits.
Written by dr sanjana p
References for further reading
Anti-inflammatory action: Aloe vera inhibits the cyclooxygenase pathway and reduces prostaglandin E2 production from arachidonic acid. Recently, the novel anti-inflammatory compound called C-glucosyl chromone was isolated from gel extracts. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9579551/
West DP, Zhu YF. Evaluation of aloe vera gel gloves in the treatment of dry skin associated with occupational exposure. Am J Infect Control. 2003;31:40–2. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12548256/
Fibromyalgia is a painful condition that is found mostly in women. The affected people suffer from pain all over the body along with tiredness, lack of sleep, mood swings, memory problems. Fibromyalgia is associated with increased sensitivity. There is enhanced sensitivity to pain, heat and cold, pressure. And often it is believed that fibromyalgia is connected with nervous system.
What are the causes of fibromyalgia?
The exact cause of fibromyalgia is not known. However, it is linked to emotional stress, habits etc.
Fibromyalgia is found mostly in individuals who are:
Stressed
Emotional
Suffering from Post traumatic stress
Having spine and brain health problems
Obese
Smokes for a longtime
Symptoms and signs of fibromyalgia
Extreme fatigue or tiredness
Pain all over the body
Cognitive and memory problems
Emotionally vulnerable
Lack of sleep
Muscle cramps
Headache
Painful menstruation
Numbness tingling
Restless leg syndrome
Sensitivity to extreme cold and heat
Oversensitive to noise
Mood swings
depression, anxiety
Latest research updates about fibromyalgia
Some studies show that the brains of people with fibromyalgia may not process pain in the same way as people not having fibromyalgia. Reduced levels of certain brain neurotransmitters, such as serotonin or norepinephrine, may cause them to be more sensitive to pain and produce a more severe reaction to pain.
How fibromyalgia is diagnosed?
It is diagnosed clinically based on signs and symptoms. There is no specific test to diagnose fibromyalgia. The disease condition is manifested as vague symptoms overlapping with symptoms of mild to serious other conditions. Therefore, basic investigations are done to exclude any serious underlying conditions if present. If nothing significant can be found out it is diagnosed as fibromyalgia.
Treatment
Usually, symptomatic management is chosen by the conventional medicine. A few drugs are available to manage pain and associated symptoms.
Homeopathy
Homeopathy offers some medicines to relieve pain, fatigue, increased sensitivity instantly, while addressing the causes at mental and physical dimensions at a deeper level. Remedies are selected in an individualized way.
Yoga
Some types of yoga and mind body relaxation techniques help to relieve the pain, tiredness and hypersensitivity. It also helps to improve mood reducing depression and anxiety.
Various types of pranayama type yoga techniques along with muscle relaxing and strengthening yoga practices, aerobic exercises help to reduce pain as well as emotional stress.
Nutrition& habit modification
In fibromyalgia diet prescribed is anti-inflammatory type including wholesome foods like fruits, vegetables, lean proteins, and healthy fats. Mediterranean diet is a good choice. Fibromyalgia diet give emphasis to avoiding processed items, sugar, unhealthy fats, and excess gluten/dairy products.
Key ingredients of the diet include leafy greens, berries, fish, nuts, seeds, turmeric, while reducing refined carbs, processed meats, and food additives.
Habit modification
Avoid smoking,excess alcoholism and over thinking. Ensure that sleep is not disrupted . Atleast an eight hours sleep is recommended.
Fossils are the windows to the evolutionary history of Earth and its organisms. They provide valuable information about the geological and evolutionary history of Earth.
Fossils are the are the remains of ancient organisms or the traces of activity of such organisms. They are preserved remains or traces of ancient life.
Paleontogy is the branch of science dealing with study of fossils. More precisely paleontologists explore the evolutionary pathways, past geological environment, climate, tectonic movements etc. through the study of fossils received from various geographical regions of the world.
Fossil studies have vital role in portraying the history and geology of various countries and continents. There are different types of fossils and they help reconstruct “the tree of life”. The remains of ancient life or fossils include bones, shells, footprints, burrows and impressions which help to decipher the evolutionary, geological, cultural history of the earth.
Geological History is unravelled through the study of fossils as they date rock layers or strata and correlate geological time across different regions.
Fossilized dung and footprints also throw light into the ancient history of different regions and the animals lived there. It throws light also into archaeological studies unravelling the civilizational history spanning over continents and time.
Fossils are indicators of the climate prevailed in the historic times. They also provide vital information about plate tectonics and evolutionary history of continents, mountains, ocean basins etc.
Types of Fossils
There are different types of fossils and each type of fossils have particular significance in paleontological, geological &archaeological studies. The chief fossil types include:
Body Fossils: These include preserved parts such as bones, shells, wood or imprints of organisms.
Trace Fossils: these types of fossils are evidence of activity particularly of animals such as tracks, burrows, nests, coprolites. Trace fossils provide evidences for the organism’s presence in a particular chronological period of history. The trace fossils include footprints, burrows, dungs etc.
Molecular Fossils: These are preserved organic molecules, providing hints about ancient biochemistry.
Fossilization- How do fossils form?
Fossilization is a complex process of fossil formation happening spontaneously overtime. It requires rapid burial in sediment (like mud or ash) to prevent decaying. Fossilization of hard parts (bones, shells) is the most common type.
Fossils undergo a variety of different fossilization processes, depending on the characteristics of the particular organism. There are various levels of fossil preservation, each containing its own clues pertaining to the organism.
Fossilization processes include:
Permineralization: Minerals fill pores, turning organic matter to rock.
Compression: Organic matter is squeezed into a
carbon film.
Impressions: the two-dimensional imprint most commonly found in silt or clay, without organic material present.
Compactions: preservation of organic material with slight volume reduction.
Molecular fossils: deals with chemical data, preserving organic material, but providing no information concerning the structure of the organism.
Freezing: ideal fossils that are rare, everything up to internal organs are preserved in cold storage.
Amber: biological specimen that is encased in the hardened resin of a tree, in which the entire body may be preserved.
Drying & Desiccation: fossils that have been thoroughly dried.
Wax & Asphalt: almost as good as freezing, but with the usage of natural paraffin.
Coprolites & Gastroliths: these categories deal with the indigestable remnants of meals.
Trace fossils: typically formed when an organism moves over the surface of soft sediment and leaves an impression of its movement behind.
Molds & Casts: An impression is left, then filled.
Conditions that facilitate fossilization
Fossilization is a complex process and certain conditions are crucial for fossilization. The most common types of fossils are those which are having hard parts such as bones& Shell and had a rapid burial after death of the organism.
Besides being tough and hard, the organism must come to rest in a place where it can be buried before it decays or disintegrates. If the organism is not buried deeply and quickly, aerobic bacteria will reduce it to rubble. Water, given enough time, can also dissolve it. For this reason, fossils of some organisms are rarer than others.
The skeletons that containing a high percentage of mineral matter are most readily preserved. The soft tissue that is not close to skeletal parts is less likely to be preserved.
Other conditions that lead to fossilization include resting an environment that was biologically inert, areas that are receiving a large, steady supply of sediment (deltas of major rivers), and parts of the earth below sea level compared to those above the sea level.
The ideal place to become a fossil is at the bottom of a quiet sea or lake where the prospective fossil is least likely to be damaged. Moreover, it can be covered rapidly with sediment.
Clay provides ideal conditions for fossilization as the sediment protects the tissues and helps to exclude predators and solvent water.
How do fossils unravel the past?
Origin of life -evolutionary history through fossil study
Fossils provides snapshots of the past which when gathered together yields the whole picture of evolutionary change over the past 3.5 billion years although there could be some missing links.
Life originated in the marine environment or sea. The earliest evidence of life on earth is of marine animals, during the Precambrian era. The oldest known Precambrian rocks, found in Africa and Australia [ more than three billion years old]and the fossils found among them are of the oldest known organisms on earth.
The fossils on ancient rocks are of Eobacterium and other water environment fossils. Bacteria e are the first recognizable organized form of life. However, it is a curious fact that scientists have found well defined remains of algae and bacteria from around two billion years ago.
Commonly fossils are found in sedimentary rock. These types of rocks have significance in the evolutionary history as well as in geological history. Sedimentary layers act as evidence of the changing climate or movement of the continents during the passage of time.
Fossils that are preserved in amber give amount of information about the anatomy of that organism. Insects that have been trapped and preserved perfectly in amber (fossilised tree resin). Here organism is usually preserved intact without any disintegration of organs, muscles, and coloring. Even bones may tell a great deal about the soft anatomy.
Some parts of a few fossils can also give an account of growth, injury, disease, form, function, activities, and instincts.
Fossils record the successive evolutionary diversification of living things, the successive colonization of habitats, and the development of increasingly complex organic communities.
Fossils can chronicle about the environment and the climatic conditions under which the organisms lived.
Fossils as geological time markers
In geological science fossils act as time markers. They throw light into the age and sequence of rock layers (strata) and the evolution of life, with specific fossils appearing and disappearing at certain periods, marking major boundaries like eras and periods.
Fossils help geo-scientists to correlate rock ages and understand Earth’s history.
Fossil study shows the time when species evolve and become extinct. Fossils of some plants and animals are confined to known, specific periods of geological time. Thus, fossils give us a useful insight into the history of life on Earth. The evolution of human beings and other life forms, the change in environment through geological time are unravelled by fossils.
They also give an account of tectonic plate movements happened in the past and evidence for collisions or continental drifts that separated continents. Fossil study of various geographical regions helps to find out the similarities in species and evolution of new species happening overtime, as a result of isolation of continents by tectonic activity.
Fossils provide important evidence for evolution and the adaptation of plants and animals to their environments.
Fossils can also be used to date rocks and throw lights into geological history. Different kinds of fossils occur in rocks of different ages and they are evidences of evolutionary as well as geological change overtime.
Fossils buttress the study of environmental degradation by providing a baseline of past, pristine environmental conditions and by offering a continuous record of how ecosystems responded to both natural and human-induced changes over time.
In a nut shell fossils are windows to the past which opens into the vast expanse of buried scientific facts which trigger explorations in different fields of science and technology to know the unknown or more precisely the mysteries of the Earth.
DASH diet is well- known for improving hypertension and heart health. However studies show that it offers several other health benefits for people having diabetes, metabolic syndrome, colon cancer , PCOS etc.
Over a couple of decades, lifestyle diseases have conquered the health of urban as well as rural populations alike, enhancing the mortality rate from heart attacks, stroke, various types of cancers etc. Globally around 19.8 million people died from cardiovascular diseases in the year 2022. Out of these 85% deaths were due to heart attacks and strokes.
The deteriorating heart health is a serious concern which needs timely intervention to prevent increasing mortality from heart attacks. Generally cardiovascular diseases arise from behavioral and environmental risk factors such as unhealthy habits of smoking, tobacco use, unhealthy diet with excessive fat, salt and sugar. Obesity, Physical inactivity, air pollution, alcohol intake are the other contributory risk factors. Both men and women are victims of obesity and sedentary, unhealthy lifestyles enhancing their risk for life style diseases particularly heart attacks.
Life style modifications to prevent heart attacks
Healthy heart can be achieved through consistent and steady healthy lifestyle practices and prevention of environmental risk factors.
It is crucial to identify the risk factors posing threat to the health of your heart through early screening tests. Early detection of the enhanced risk helps to prevent the incidence of heart attacks.
Lifestyle modifications are inevitable for achieving a healthy heart. Of late lifestyle medicine clinics are giving emphasis to life style changes for all for preventing heart attacks and other cardiovascular events.
It encompasses healthy habits, healthy diet and environment and mind body relaxation techniques, restorative sleep , physical activity, positive social connections. All these lifestyle modifications are targeting at reducing the risks leading to cardiovascular diseases.
lifestyle changes mustinclude :
Fostering behavioral changes
Healthy habits to prevent heart diseases
Quit smoking
Avoid alcohol intake
Reduce stress
Increase moderate physical activity
Mind body relaxation
Avoid exposure to polluted air & smoke from automobiles etc.
2.Adopting a healthy nutrition plan
Healthy diet for heart
There are several dietary patterns for healthy heart such as Mediterranean diet, DASH DIET etc. DASH diet is discussed here as it also helps to reduce the impact hypertension on the heart.
DASH diet – A comprehensive overview
DASH – Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension.
Although in the beginning of 90s DASH diet was given emphasis to reduce hypertension [ high B.P] later its good effects were proved in the management of various other conditions also.
DASH diet includes whole grains, fruits, vegetables, nuts, fish, lean meat and low-fat dairy foods etc. Fruits and vegetables provide nutrients like potassium, calcium, magnesium, and fiber that are important for fighting high blood pressure. These nutrients also can improve insulin resistance and glucose levels
The DASH diet recommends
more whole-grain foods, fish, poultry,nuts. Lean meat is recommended while red meat is limited.
Healthy fats, such as olive and canola oil or avocados, nuts are included in DASH diet.
The diet limits sodium, sweets, sugary drinks, and red meats.
Foods that are high in saturated fat, cholesterol, and trans fats are restricted or limited.
How to change your daily diet to DASH diet?
You can not make a tectonic shift in your current lifestyle instantly. It needs steady and consistent efforts motivating yourself or by taking the service of a nutrition expert or life style health provider. The results do happen if you adhere to this plan of lifestyle modification and practice it consistently.
1. Include low glycaemic index fruits like berries, plums, grape ,oranges etc. to your meals or as a snacking item. Canned and dried fruits are easily available for use but with no added sugar or salt in them.
2. Reduce the consumption of butter, margarine, or fatty salad dressing and consume low-fat or fat-free items.
3. Consume low-fat or skimmed dairy products
4. Include more vegetables like kale, broccoli, spinach etc. to your diet.
5. Restrict eating fried items or sweets. Eat unsalted nuts, raisins, low-fat and fat-free yogurt, frozen yogurt.
6. While purchasing packed foods, read food labels to choose products that are lower in sodium.
Healthy carbohydrates included under DASH:
Carbohydrates in the DASH diet are mainly composed of cellulose and starches. It is mainly present in plant fiber. Reducing carbohydrates in the diet or eating “low carb diet” is not as healthy as that may lead to decreased caloric intake than recommended or consumption of unhealthy fats as a substitute.
Consume whole grains: cracked wheat, millets, oats etc.
Green leafy vegetables & fruits recommended in DASH
Kale, broccoli, spinach, collards, mustards are included.
Fruits:
Low glycemic index fruits such as cherries, grapes , pears ,oranges ,apples ,plums ,berries are recommended
Protein sources recommended in DASH diet:
Legumes and beans are included chiefly in this diet. DASH recommends more servings of plant proteins like legumes, soy products, nuts, and seeds. Animal protein in the diet mainly includes lean meats, low-fat dairy, eggs, and fish.
Processed meat is not recommended as they have the potential to be carcinogenic [causing cancer] or may raise blood pressure.
Healthy fats in DASH diet:
Healthy fats prevent inflammation, provide essential fatty acids, and help general health. When consumed in moderation, these fats have been shown to increase HDL and lower small dense LDL particles.
Some of the sources of good fats also included in DASH include:
Olive oil, Avocados, Nuts, Hemp seeds, Flax seeds, Fish rich in omega-3 fatty acids
Minerals- recommended sources in DASH diet:
DASH diet recommends intake of foods rich in potassium, calcium, and magnesium as these prevent endothelial dysfunction and promote endothelial, smooth muscle relaxation.
Some of the foods rich in potassium include bananas, oranges, and spinach.
Calcium is found in good amounts in dairy products and green leafy vegetables.
Magnesium is present in a variety of whole grains, leafy vegetables, nuts, and seeds.
Benefits of DASH diet in cardiovascular health
Helps to reduce high blood pressure
Reduce the risk for heart disease, heart failure, and stroke
Help prevent or control type 2 diabetes
Reduce bad cholesterol levels.
According to NIH [U.S.A] the recommended DASH diet is served as follows:
Grains 6–8 servings/day
Meats, poultry, and fish 6 or less servings/day
Vegetables 4–5 servings /day
Fruit 4–5 servings/day
Low-fat or fat-free dairy products 2–3 servings/day
Fats and oils 2–3/day
Sodium 2,300 milligrams (mg) or 1,500 mg of salt (sodium) per day
Nuts, seeds, dry beans, and peas 4–5 servings weekly
Sweets 5 or less servings weekly.
DASH diet – role in diabetes , metabolic syndrome,polycystic ovarian syndrome & colon cancers.
Extensive research studies have been conducted all over the world to unravel the good effects of DASH diet beyond its potential to make a positive impact in the management of high blood pressure [ hypertension].
Several studies have shown that the DASH diet helps lower blood glucose levels, triglycerides, LDL-C, and insulin resistance. All these are major risk factors if brought under control by a dietary modification the health is protected against diabetes , heart attacks, stroke , cancers , metabolic syndrome and much more. The research study gives great hope for the management of non-communicable diseases through lifestyle modification.
DASH diet helps to reduce the risk for heart attack and stroke in people suffering from metabolic syndrome. DASH diet is prescribed as an adjunct to pharmacological therapy in metabolic syndrome [high blood pressure, high cholesterol and high blood sugar]. Metabolic syndrome is often associated with excess fat around waist or central obesity
DASH diet also reduces the risk of colon cancer
Studies have shown a reduction in the incidence of colorectal cancer.
According to a study DASH diet has been found helpful toreduce insulin resistance and central obesity in women having polycystic ovarian syndrome [PCOS].
Of late PCOS is posing great health complications in women of reproductive age group being an impediment to fertility as it alters hormonal balances causing anovulation. DASH diet can be recommended for women having PCOS to improve insulin resistance and re establish hormonal balance. It also helps in addressing truncal obesity in PCOS women.
One study corroborates this finding as it concludes that following the DASH diet for 8 weeks in overweight and obese women with PCOS resulted in the improvement of insulin resistance, serum hs-CRP levels, and abdominal fat accumulation [4].
Research studies show that the monounsaturated fats and polyunsaturated fats of foods chosen in this dietary pattern can help to improve insulin, androgens, and cholesterol levels in women with PCOS.
Nuts are main ingredients of DASH diet. They are rich infiber, omega-3 fatty acids, protein, and essential vitamins and minerals.
* Dash diet helps for lowering blood pressure, particularly in diabetic patients.
* The DASH diet has been recommended as the best dietary choice for obese people who want to lose weight, maintain a healthy weight and lower the blood pressure.
DASH diet not only improve your heart health but overall health . If you are on the verge of metabolic syndrome, hypertension, obesity, polycystic ovarian syndrome, DASH diet may help you. However, consulting a health care provider is recommended if you have complex health issues.
The term “Biodiversity” encompasses a wide variety of life on Earth, with a large diversity of genes, species, and ecosystems. Tectonic plate movements and its consequent climate and habitat change have detrimental impact on biodiversity and evolution of species.
Biodiversity is a hotly debated and researched topic from time to time by numerous scientists & environmentalists in relation to climate, ecosystems and demographic characteristics. Its significance has been enhanced unprecedently in this modern era as multiple factors influence and impact on biodiversity.
Biodiversity is integral part of sustenance life on earth as it is essential to sustain the constant flow of clean air, fresh water, and food. Biodiversity plays key role in regulating the climate, and maintaining healthy ecosystems that support human well-being.
Biodiversity is studied by scientists conducting expeditions to survey and monitor species, habitats, and their interactions. On these expeditions, they collect data on various parameters such as population sizes and trends, distribution and habitat use, and impacts of management or other human activities.
Since prehistoric times the earth and ecosystems have been subjected to transformations and extinctions. It is an unfortunate fact that currently the impacts on biodiversity are happening in an unprecedented rate.
There has been an enhanced threat to biodiversity in the recent decades including habitat loss and fragmentation, excessive use of unsustainable resources, pollution, global climate change, emergence of invasive species.
Biodiversity is influenced by a wide array of factors. The population is exploding all over the world and its impact on biodiversity is unimaginable. Overconsumption of resources and human intervention on biodiversity has adverse impacts on mankind.
However, plate tectonics have a massive impact on biodiversity creating as well as destroying species and accelerating the process of evolution.
Plate tectonics
Movement of tectonic plates on the crust of Earth’s surface [plate tectonics] has major biogeographical consequences. Evidences suggest that tectonic activity began over 4 billion years ago. Collisions or rifting movements of plates creating and destroying habitats of organisms continues spanning centuries. It is happening through continental drift &by forming physical barriers like mountains through plate collisions.
Modern understanding of planetary dynamics including plate tectonics unravel the habitat loss or creation stemming from geographical changes like this.
Tectonic plate movement range from 10 to 40 millimetres per year (0.4 to 1.6 in/year). Where the plates meet, their relative motion determines the type of plate boundary as convergent, divergent, or transform.
Ocean-to-continent subduction, where the dense oceanic lithosphere plunges beneath the less dense continent plate. At zones of ocean-to-continent subduction mountain ranges form.
2. Ocean-to-ocean subduction where older, cooler, denser oceanic crust slips beneath less dense oceanic crust. Deep marine trenches are typically associated with subduction zones.
3. At continental collision zones two masses of continental lithospheres are converging. As they are of similar density, neither is subducted.
The plate edges are compressed, folded, and uplifted forming mountain ranges,
4. At zones of ocean-to-ocean rifting, divergent boundaries form by seafloor spreading, allowing for the formation of new ocean basin. Two plates slide apart from each other. This rifting when happens on oceanic plates it leads to formation of new ocean basin.
5.Transform boundaries (conservative boundaries or strike-slip boundaries)
Here plates are neither created nor destroyed. Instead, two plates slide, or precisely they grind past each other, along transform faults. Strong earthquakes may happen along a fault.
Impact of plate tectonics on biodiversity
Tectonic movements and continental deformation consequent to that lead to complexity of habitat. They trigger a complex landscape response. For instance, a river network reorganization including river captures by tectonic forces leads to an unusually high diversity of habitat through isolation, creation or destruction of facets of the landscape.
Building of mountain barriers consequent to plate tectonics quite often lead to isolation and speciation, and connecting landmasses via land bridges that allow for species migration and exchange.
These movements of tectonic plates also drive global climate shifts, influencing the distribution and evolution of life.
Let us delve deeper into the tectonic impact on geomorphology and its impact on species and biodiversity.
Continental drift and habitat formation:
As continents separate, new continental margins are created during movement of tectonic plates, it creates potential habitats and spurring diversification.
When the tectonic plates collide, previously separated landmasses can merge again. This may lead to competition between new species and that occupied similar niches in isolation.
Land bridges formation & migration
Plate tectonics can cause sea levels to drop, forming land bridges that connect continents. This new land bridges facilitate migration of species between the continents. A famous example is the Bering land bridge between Siberia and Alaska, which allowed many species, including early humans, to migrate between continents.
Isolation and speciation
The formation of mountain ranges through plate collisions may function as a physical barrier leading to isolation or separating populations and thus preventing gene flow. Over time, isolated populations can evolve independently as new species through a process called allopatric speciation.
The separation of continents and the formation of ocean basins can act as another kind of barriers driving marine and terrestrial diversification.
Climate change and species composition
Plate tectonics influence global climate patterns drastically by changing ocean currents and creating mountain ranges that affect atmospheric circulation.
The global climate patterns in turn affects the types of habitats available for organisms. The fossil records elucidate how climate changes drive changes in species composition and distribution.
New ecosystems formation
Geological changes such as the creation of mid-ocean ridges, oceanic trenches, and volcanic island arcs due to tectonic movements eventually lead to the formation of new habitats and ecosystems.
The subsequent cooling and sinking of oceanic crust can displace seawater, causing global sea levels to rise.
Evolutionary patterns of populations from variance
The splitting of a continuous population by the formation of a physical barrier such as mountains, ocean basins etc. is called vicariance. This can lead to the evolutionary divergence of populations on either side of the barrier.
Plate tectonics function as Rift and collision pumps:
Plate tectonics can be described as a “rift pump” as it increases biodiversity through isolation. It functions as a “collision pump” that enhances competition between new & existing species when continents collide. In either way plate tectonics impacts on biodiversity.
Acceleration of evolution:
The separation and collision of continents compel species to adapt to new environments created.
This can lead to new evolutionary paths or extinctions.
The dynamic changes impacted by plate tectonics, including the creation and destruction of habitats, can accelerate the pace of biological evolution.
Fossil studies reveal that plate tectonics have been associated with profound biogeographical consequences, such as isolation and speciation. Eventually geologically isolated species may emerge as a new species in the new ecosystem. Similarly, another type of collision of tectonic plates may merge isolated continents forming ridges or land bridges. Now this may cause competition between existing and newly joined species and gradual extinction.
The impact of plate tectonics on biodiversity and climate is evident in the fossil record of animals with Gondwanan affinities in India and Madagascar.
The collision of continents can connect previously separated landmasses. The collision of India with Asia as per the fossil studies show that fossils of shared vertebrate groups found in both India and Madagascar, showing a link to the former supercontinent Gondwana.
A formation of the Isthmus of Panama allowed for the exchange of animals between North and South America.
conclusion
Plate tectonic is not the only cause that impacts biodiversity. Several other factors like global warming, human interventions and natural catastrophes such as volcanic eruptions and ocean currents play their own roles. However the tectonic movements have significant role in the evolutionary process of extinction as well as emergence of new species.
