Mahabalipuram is a famous heritage town listed under UNESCO world heritage sites and it is enriched with rock-cut cave temples, monolithic temples, bas-relief sculptures, and structural temples as well as the excavated remains of temples of Pallava architectural style.
Mahabalipuram (or Mamallapuram), located along southeastern India’s Coromandel Coast has a group of monuments built by the Pallava dynasty during 6th-9th centuries. The majestic edifices portray the dexterity of the Pallava craftsmen in carving temples and sculptures.
The site is well known for its 40 ancient monuments and Hindu temples, including one of the largest open-air rock reliefs in the world: the Descent of the Ganges or Arjuna’s Penance.
Other acclaimed Pallava monuments include Ratha temples with monolithic processional chariots, built between 630 and 668; mandapa viharas (cave temples) with narratives from the Mahabharata and Shaivite, Shakti or Shaaktha and Vaishnava inscriptions in a number of Indian languages and scripts; rock reliefs (particularly bas-reliefs); stone-cut temples built between 695 and 722.
This heritage site is restored after 1960 and now protected by the Archaeological Survey of India.
Location
The Mahabalipuram temples are located in the southeastern Indian state of Tamil Nadu, about 60 kilometres southwest of Chennai on the Coromandel Coast.
The origin of Mamallapuram- The city of Pallava dynasty
Mahabalipuram is also known by the name Mamallapuram; Mamalla means “Great Wrestler”, and refers to the 7th-century king of Pallava dynasty Narasimha Varman I.
The town is mentioned in history in various other names including Mamallapattana, Mavalipuram, Mavalivaram, Mavellipore, Mauvellipooram and Mahabalipur, all of which refer to a “great wrestler city” or “city of Mahabali”. Mabalipuram is also linked with the legend of is Mahabali, the demon king defeated by Vamana (an incarnation of Lord Vishnu).
Indian monuments and landforms are intricately linked with the vastness of its mythology and this sacred linking is not uncommon throughout the subcontinent. In the ancient monuments of Mahabalipuram the sculptures, cave temples and inscriptions are connected to history as well as mythology, particularly Mahabharata epic.
There is another story linking this heritage city with prosperity and growth as the Tamil word “mallal” means prosperity. It refers to the prosperity and economic growth of this city of Pallavas during 6th and 7th centuries.
It is curious to find that an 8th-century Tamil text by the early Bhakti movement poet Thirumangai Alvar, where Mamallapuram is called “Kadal Mallai” supporting this claim of Nagaswamy.
Most of the ancient texts , including seventh-century inscriptions refer this town of Palavas as “Mamallapuram” or its close variants. The name “Mahabalipuram” appears only after the 16th century as per records.
The town was also mentioned in colonial-era literature as “Seven Pagodas” by European sailors who landed on the coast and found the towers of seven Hindu temples built by Pallavas.
Marco Polo (1271-1295 CE) also has mentioned about “Seven Pagodas” and the name became associated with the shore temples of Mahabalipuram in publications by European merchants centuries later. However, currently Mahabalipuram monuments own fewer than seven towers, the name “ seven pagodas” has inspired speculation and debate.
Mahabalipuram monuments- Recent archeological findings
In December 2004 Asian tsunami, generated by an earthquake in Indian ocean 160km away from Sumatra island as its epicentre [Indonesa] had a devastating impact on the shores of Tamilnadu also. In many places across the world, there was receding sea water exposing oceanic bed before the occurrence of towering tsunami wave. The tsunami had briefly exposed the beachfront near Saluvankuppam (now north of Mahabalipuram), revealing inscriptions and structures. According to a BBC report that these inscriptions dated back to 9th century and they might have been destroyed later by a 13th-century tsunami.
The tsunami also revealed large structures on the seabed about a kilometre offshore. About this site archaeologists opined that it might be the ancient Mahabalipuram. According to a Science article, the tsunami exposed rocks with elaborately sculpted head of an elephant and a horse in flight. Other artefacts exposed were a small niche with a statue of a deity, another rock with a reclining lion, and other Hindu religious iconography.
In Mahabalipuram group monuments Shore temple is prominent ancient monument close to the beach area. Marine archaeologists and underwater diving teams have explored a site east of the Shore Temple after the 2004 tsunami. This has revealed ruins of fallen walls, a large number of rectangular blocks and other structures parallel to the shore, and the forty surviving monuments.
Pallava rule & emergence of Mamallapuram
Mamallapuram became prominent during the Pallava-era reign of Simhavishnu during the late 6th century. During his reign there was great friction with Pandyas and Cheras.
The monuments of Mahabalipuram are a fusion of religion, culture and legend relating to the Hindu religious pantheon. The monuments depict many 7th- and 8th-century Sanskrit inscriptions and also unravel the medieval South Indian history, culture, reign and religion.
Mamallapuram’s architecture is linked to Simhavishnu’s son, Mahendravarman I (600-630 CE), who was a patron of the arts. Mahendravarman’s son, Narsimha Varman I, continued the work of this city architecture . After a brief hiatus, temple and monument construction was revived during the reign of Rajasimha (or Narasimhavarman II; 690–728).
The site has about forty monuments, including monolithic temples, cave temples , sculptures ,rock reliefs etc.
Types of monuments in Mahabalipuram
- Rathas: chariot-shaped temples
- Mandapas: Cave temples
- Rock reliefs
- Structural temples
- Excavations
There are ten major rathas, ten mandapas, two rock bas-reliefs and three structural temples.
The monuments portray Hindu mythology gods and goddesses. The reliefs, sculptures and architecture incorporate Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism.
Ratha temples
The ratha temples are carved in the shape of chariots in blocks of diorite and granite in sand, carving legends in stone.
They include five monolithic structures projecting above the beach, known as the Five Rathas or the Pandava Rathas.
They are temples with chariot carvings dedicated to deities and concepts of the Shaivi, (Shiva), Vaishnavi (Vishnu) and Shakti (Durga) traditions of Hinduism. These temples are dated to the 7th century.
Cave temples
Mandapas also refer to rock-cut cave temples or shrines, built according to the same concept, and Mamallapuram has many mandapas dated to the 7th and 8th centuries. Cave temples of Mahabalipuram have three entrances
Trimurti cave in northern Mamallapuram
Temple entrance with lingam
Shiva shrine
Temple entrance, with bas-reliefs on interior wall
Vishnu shrine
Mandapa is a Sanskrit term for a typically square vestibule, pillared hall or pavilion.
It was a space for gathering for rituals for the people. Cells or sanctums would often be included, creating a vihara.
The noteworthy feature of cave temples is that they are in incomplete form, and therefore provides much information about how cave monuments were excavated and built in 7th-century. The process of producing rock-cut cave temples influenced later structural Hindu temples.
Segments of the caves indicate that artisans worked with architects to mark off the colonnade, cutting deep grooves into the rock to create rough-hewn protuberances with margins. The hanging rocks were then cut off, and they repeated the process. After the excavation, other artisans moved in to polish the rocks and begin the creation of designs, motifs, friezes and Hindu iconography.
Varaha cave temple
The Varaha cave was excavated from a vertical wall on the west face of the main Mamallapuram hill. it is known for its four sculptures depicting Hindu legends: the Vamana-Trivikrama legend, the Varaha legend, the Durga legend and the Gajalakshmi legend and dated back to the 7th century.
Kotikal cave temple
It is a simple, early excavation with two pilasters on its facade. Inside the Kotikal cave temple are an oblong ardha-mandapa (half or partial hall) and a square sanctum (garbha griya). The front of the sanctum has mouldings and features similar to a free-standing temple. The sanctum door is flanked by female dvarapalas (sculptures guarding the door) on each side.
The female guardians on the sanctum door suggest that the deity in the sanctum was probably Durga, the Hindu goddess.
One pillar has an inscription in the Grantha alphabet which transliterates as “Sri Vamankusa”. It is believed that the temple was built by a patron (according to Ramaswami, possibly Telugu). The temple dates back to the early Mahendra period.
Dharmaraja cave temple
The Dharmaraja cave temple, also known as the Atyantakama cave temple, is on the south side of Mamallapuram hill near the Mahishamardini cave.
The temple has a fourteen-line Sanskrit inscription in the Grantha alphabet with an epithet. The cave is probably built during the reign of King Rajasimha (late 7th or early 8th century), but other archeologists date it to the 7th-century King Paramesvara-varman .A few other scholars assign it to the Mahendra period, based on its style.
Ramanuja cave temple
One of the most sophisticated and complete cave temples, excavated in the center of the main Mamallapuram hill, on its eastern scarp.
The Ramanuja cave consists of a rectangular ardha-mandapa, marked with a row of pillars. At the side of its facade are two model vimanas with a square rock platform. On the floor between the two pillars of the facade is a Sanskrit inscription in the Grantha alphabet praising Rudra, evidence that the temple was originally associated with Shaivism. The inscription’s florid font and epithets date it to the 7th century and Parameshvara Varman.
The temple was partially renovated centuries after its construction into a shrine for the Vaishnava scholar, Ramanuja. The later artisans added the six crudely-cut, free-standing pillars in front, probably to extend the mandapa.
Koneri mandapa
The Koneri temple is dedicated to Shiva and it is carved into the western side of the main hill in Mamallapuram. The temple has two rows of four pillars and two pilasters. The front row is considerably simpler than the row near the shrines, which is intricately carved.
Krishna mandapa
The Krishna mandapa is a sophisticated cave, built in 7th century, with large panels depicting Hindu mythology and the culture, situated near the Descent of the Ganges bas-relief. The walls of the pillared hall depict village life woven into the story of Krishna. Krishna holds Goverdhana Mountain, under which are people, cattle and other animals, in one section.
Atiranachanda cave temple
This 7th-century built cave temple is in the village of Saluvankuppam, north of Mamallapuram. It has a small facade, with two octagonal pillars with square sadurams (bases) and two four-sided pilasters. Behind the facade is an ardha-mandapa and a small, square sanctum. In front of the facade are empty mortise holes, probably later additions to a now-missing mandapa.
The sanctum entrance has two Shaiva dvarapalas. Inside is a later black, polished, 16-sided, tantra-style Shiva linga.
Adivaraha cave temple
The Adivaraha cave temple is built in 7th century and it is also known as the Maha Varaha Vishnu temple. It is known for sculptures relating the Hindu legends about Varaha (Vaishnavism), Durga (Shaktism), Gangadhara (Shaivism), Harihara (Vaishnavism-Shaivism fusion) and Gajalakshmi (Vaishnavism).
The temple is at the northern end of the main Mamallapuram hill, on its western side.
This temple is opened only during times of pooja in the morning and evening.
The temple is dedicated to Varaha incarnation of god Vishnu. In the panel inside temple Shiva is represented as Ganga dhara which is a Pallava style of temple architecture.
Mahishasuramardini cave temple
The Mahishasuramardini cave, also known as the Mahishamardini mandapa, is found at the southern end of the site (known locally as Yamapuri). Excavated on the eastern scarp of a boulder on the main Mamallapuram hill, above it are the ruins of the Olakkannesvara temple. According to Ramaswami, the temple is unfinished but what has been carved represents the ultimate in Tamil temple rock art. The cave has many panels, and their narrative follows the Markandeya Purana.
Panchapandava mandapam
Just south of the Arjuna’s Penance bas-relief is the Panchapandava mandapam, the largest (unfinished) cave temple excavated in Mamallapuram.
It has six pillars, one of which has been restored, and two pilasters as its facade. Another row of pillars follows in the ardhamandapa, and largely-unfinished, deep side halls also contain pillars. Evidence of work in progress suggests that the cave was intended to have a walking path and large wall reliefs.
Other mandapas
The Mamallapuram site includes a number of other unfinished cave temples. Among them are the Trimurti temple, dedicated to Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu.
Pulipudar and adjacent cave temples near the Konerippallam tank and the Tiger Cave, also known as the Yali mandapa, dedicated to Lakshmi (the goddess of prosperity.
Structural temples
The structural (free-standing) temples at Mamallapuram have been built with cut stones as building blocks, rather than carved into a rock (cave temples) or out of a rock (ratha temples).
They represent a different stage, style and sophistication than the other monuments, are some of best examples of early medieval Tamil Hindu-temple architecture These temples are dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu and Durga, although more Shiva iconography has survived over time.
Shore Temple of Mahabalipuram
The Shore Temple complex is near the Mamallapuram shore. It consists of a large temple, two smaller temples and many minor shrines, open halls, gateways, and other elements, much of which is buried by sand.
The main temple is within a two-tier, compound wall with statues of Shiva’s vahana (vehicle), Nandi, surrounding it. The 60-foot (18 m)-high temple has a 50-square-foot (4.6 m2) plan. It is a stepped pyramidal tower, arranged in five tiers with Shiva iconography.
The temple includes a path around its main sanctum and a large, barrel vaulted roof above its doorway. Pilasters on the outer wall divide it into bays.
A small temple in the original forecourt of the larger temple. The other two temples in the complex are behind the main temple, face each other and are known as the Rajasimhesvara (or Nripatisimha Pallava Vishnugriha) and the Kshatriyasimhesvara.
The main shrine has Vishnu and Durga images. The rear temple walls are carved with Somaskanda bas-relief panels depicting Shiva, Parvati and the infant Skanda.
Most of its Nandi sculptures were in ruins and scattered around the main temple complex. Twentieth-century restoration efforts replaced them in accordance with the inscriptions, descriptions of the temple in medieval texts and excavations of layers which confirmed that Nandi bulls were seated along its periphery.
The Shiva temples of the complex have been dated to the early 8th century and are attributed to the reign of the Pallava king Rajasimha (700-728). The Vishnu temple, with an image of a reclining Vishnu discovered after excavations, has been dated to the 7th century.
Olakkanesvara temple
The Olakkanesvara temple is situated on the rock above the Mahishamardini cave temple. It is also known as the Old Lighthouse because of its conversion by British officials. The temple is built by King Rajasimha ,in the early 8th century from grey granite cut into blocks.
This temple is in dilapidated condition and its superstructure is missing; what remains is a square building with its west entrance flanked by dvarapalas. The walls of the temple depict the Ravananugraha legend from the Ramayana and a relief of Dakshinamurti (Shiva as a yoga teacher). Its name is modern, based on the “ollock of oil” per day which was burnt by local residents to keep the temple flame lit.
Mukundanayanar temple
The Mukundanayanar temple has ratha-like architecture. North of the main hill in Mamallapuram, it has been dated to the early 8th century and attributed to King Rajasimha.
Rock reliefs
Reliefs are carved on rocks or boulders. These include the wall of the Krishna mandapa, where a superstructure was added in front of the relief.
The best-known rock relief in Mahablipuram is the Descent of the Ganges (also known as Arjuna’s Penance or Bhagiratha’s Penance), the largest open-air rock relief.
The Descent of the Ganges is considered one of the largest bas-relief works in the world. The relief, consisting of Hindu mythology, is carved on two 27-metre-long (89 ft), 9-metre-high (30 ft) boulders.
Inscriptions near the panel with the light house in the background
There are two primary interpretations regarding this descent of ganges.
The first one is the effort needed to bring the Ganges from the heavens to earth, and the Kiratarjuniya legend and the chapter from the Mahabharata about Arjuna’s efforts to gain the weapon he needed to help good triumph over evil. A portion of the panel shows the help he received from Shiva to defeat the Asuras. Included in the panel are Vishnu, Shiva, other gods and goddesses, sages, human beings, animals, reptiles and birds.
According to another interpretation, an ascetic Bhagiratha is praying for the Ganges to be brought to earth. Shiva receives the river, to which all life is racing in peace and thirst. This myth has not been universally accepted as central characters are missing or are inconsistent with their legends. The absence of a boar from the entire panel makes it doubtful that it is single story.
However, scenes of Arjuna’s penance and the descent of the Ganges are affirmed.
The granite reliefs, from the early or middle 7th century, are considered by The Hindu as “one of the marvels of the sculptural art of India.
written by dr sanjana p souparnika
References
- https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/249/
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_of_Monuments_at_Mahabalipuram
- image courtesy- pexel.com
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