Category: Himalayas

Mount Kailash – The unclimbed sacred mountain of Himalayas
Mount Kailash, the sacred mountain peak [6,638 m] located in Tibet’s Ngari Prefecture is a world-famous pilgrim centre of Himalayas, revered by believers of Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Bon followers. It is visited for circumambulation of the mountain and ritualistic bath in nearby lake Manasarovar by thousands of people every year.
Kailash -The unclimbed sacred mountain
   Mount Kailash with its snow cladded peaks, worshipped as the centre of universe amazes the world for millions of years as a serene destination where devotees experience the fulfilment of soul’s journey.
This unclimbed sacred mountain is located in Tibet in the western Trans Himalayas near Manasarovar Lake and Rakshastal. It is regarded as a symbol of spirituality and sacredness for Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Bon religion of Tibet.
Mount Kailash [6638m] located in Tibet’s Ngari Prefecture is revered by Bon followers as a divine abode and the center of the universe. It is located near Lakes Manasarovar and Rakshastal.
    The word ‘Kailash’ is derived from sanskrit kailasa or kelasa which means crystal. Pilgrims from China, India, Nepal, and other countries visit mount Kailash for a circumambulation of the universe. Each circumambulation is a representation of fulfilling a life-death cycle.
On the way to mount Kailash one can see numerous stupas, flag poles, Buddhist monasteries and praying stations. Many of the ancient cultural artifacts were vandalized during the Cultural Revolution of China from 1966 to 1976.
The vestiges of the artifacts visible on both sides, on your journey in quest of divine power of Kailash, may tell you the stories of civilizations and cultures of bygone era sleeping in this land.
Manasarovar lake has been considered holy since time immemorial and Hindus take a ritual bath in the Manasarovar before doing circumambulation of mount Kailash. Manasarovar is the highest freshwater lake in the world.
According to Skanda Purana scripts “There are no mountains like the Himalaya, for in them are Kailas and Manasarovar. As the dew is dried up by the morning Sun, so are the sins of mankind dried up by the sight of the Himalaya
In Tibet, the mount Kailash is also known as Gang Rinpoche which means “snow jewel mountain”. Tibetan Buddhists call kailash as Kangri Rinpoche which means ‘Precious Snow Mountain’.
According to Tibetan religious texts of Bons Mount Kailash is known by several names such as Water’s Flower, Mountain of Sea Water, Nine Stacked Swastikas Mountain.
Till date Kailash Mountain peak remains unclimbed and climbing the mountain is prohibited by law due to its religious significance
Mount Kailash through the veil of myths &legends;
   According to Hindu puranas and mythology texts Kailash is the centre of Universe, the home of Lord Shiva and goddess Parvati and their children. The mountain has been referred as mount Meru in Hindu scriptures and texts. Mount Meru represents stairway to heaven, where the devas reside.
The Vishnu Purana states that it lies in the centre of the world surrounded by six mountain ranges similar to a lotus, one of which is the Himalayas.
Kailash is intricately woven with the Jainism also as the first leader of Jains got enlightenment in this mountain. According to Jain scriptures, Rishabhadeva, the first Tirthankar of Jainism attained moksha (liberation) on Mount Kailash. Later Rishabhadeva’s son emperor Bharata Chakravartin had constructed three stupas and twenty-four shrines of the 24 tirthankaras in the region. He also performed a fortnight of worship termed Mahamaga and attained salvation from Kailash.
  Buddhists believe that Mount Kailash is the navel of the universe. Buddhist texts describe Mount Kailash (Kailasa) as the mythological Mount Meru. Kailash is central to its cosmology, and a major pilgrimage site for some Buddhist traditions. Kailash and Manasarovar are considered as fatherly and motherly symbols in Buddhist tradition. Many destinations in the region are associated with Padmasambhava, the pioneer of Tantric Buddhism in Tibet in the 8th century CE.
Tibetan Buddhist pilgrims often chant Om mani padme hum (jewel in the lotus) and sing nyelu songs while crossing the Dolma La pass which are believe to proclaim a fraternity amongst all pilgrims who cross paths on a Kailash pilgrimage. Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, Bon followers converge as one entity of faith in the centre of the universe at mount Kailash.
Mount kailash is of supreme reverence for believers of Bon religion of Tibet also. For the Bons, the mountain is the abode of sky goddess Sipaimen and the mountain was the centre of the ancient Bon empire of Zhang Zhung. The followers of Bon religion of Tibet believe that the mountain is the abode of the sky goddess Sipaimen.
Geographical location
Mount Kailash is located in Ngari Prefecture, Tibet the Autonomous Region of China.
It is situated in the Gangdise Shan (also known as Kailash Range) of the Transhimalaya, in the western part of the Tibetan Plateau. The Mount Kailash peak is at an elevation of 6,638 m.
A few culturally significant rivers take origin from the western Gangdise Mountains and they include the Yarlung Tsangpo (which later becomes the Brahmaputra), the Indus, the Sutlej and the Ghaghara, a tributary of the Ganges. All these major rivers arise within a 60 km stretch in the region.
Mount Kailash is located on the banks of Manasarovar and Rakshastal lakes. Spread over an area of 320 km2.
Geology of mount Kailash
The geological analysis may show that mount kailash is a metasedimentary roof pendant supported by a base of granite. The collision of India and Asia resulted in folding, faulting, and heating of sedimentary basins. The area is a “roof pendant” or uplifted block of rock where deep crustal rocks (granites) and ocean-floor sediments (sedimentary rocks) are now exposed together at high altitudes.
The Indus headwaters area is typified by wide-scale faulting of metamorphosed late-Cretaceous to mid-Cenozoic sedimentary rocks interspersed with igneous Cenozoic granitic rocks. The headwaters are situated along the Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone (ITSZ), where the Indian Plate collided with the Eurasian Plate. The igneous rocks are formed by the cooling of magma (molten rock) deep within the Earth’s crust during the Cenozoic era.
The Cenozoic rocks represent offshore marine limestones deposited before subduction of the Tethys oceanic crust.
Climate in the mount Kailash region
In summer the weather is fairly dry and during April to June the day time temperatures are in the range 5 to 17 °C (41 to 63 °F) and night time temperatures of 0 to 6 °C (32 to 43 °F). The region is cool even in summer.
But in the winter starting from October the temperature falls down to the freezing point ranging from −4 to 0 °C (25 to 32 °F) and further lower in the night reaching up to −20 °C (−4 °F). January is the coolest month and is covered with snow and glaciers in the Trans Himalayan region.
Monsoon rain begins from the end of June to August accompanied by freezing cold winds.
The temperature and weather of Trans Himalayas and mount Kailash are transforming under the impact of global warming as in other part of the globe. The rising temperature poses devastating impact on
The retreating glaciers and thawing of the permafrost in the Tibet region may have impact on water resources.
Furthermore, population explosion, pollution and tourism have adversely impacted the fragile ecosystem around Mount Kailash.
Pilgrimage to the sacred abode of Shiva – Kailash
It is unclear in the history when mount Kailash rose to the status of a sacred destination for pilgrimage. In the Indian subcontinent the sacred linking of landforms with divinity is evident since antiquity. In the Himalayan region crossing the borders also this tradition of sacred linking of myths is evident. Mount Kailash and other temples, monasteries in the valley testify for that.
Mount Kailash is revered as the abode of Hindu lord Shiva and by other religious sects as center of the universe.
The pilgrimage to mount Kailash involves trekking towards Lake Manasarovar and a circumambulation of Mount Kailash. The path around Mount Kailash is 53 km long. There are many stupas, flag poles, Buddhist monasteries and praying stations along the route.
The circumambulation usually begins and ends at Darchen, a small outpost located at an elevation of 4,670 m.
Each circumambulation of mount Kailash is symbolic of a fulfilled a life-death cycle.
Hindus take a ritual bath in the Manasarovar before doing circumambulation. The circumambulation is made in a clockwise direction by Hindus, Buddhists, and Jains, while Bonpos circumambulate the mountain in a counterclockwise direction. But setting foot on the slopes of the mountain or attempting to climb it is forbidden by law due to the religious significance of the mountain.
Religious pilgrimages to Mount Kailas and Manasarovar were allowed by China after its occupation of Tibet in 1950-51.
While pilgrimage from India was guaranteed by the 1954 Sino-Indian Agreement, access was restricted after the subsequent 1959 Tibetan uprising and the borders were closed after the Sino-Indian War in 1962.
After a pause of around two decades pilgrimage from India to Mount Kailash was resumed in 1981 after an agreement between the governments of India and China.
Later in 2020 the pandemic covid shut the route to mount Kailash and Manasarovar for around three successive years.
The route was re-opened in 2023 with new regulations.
How can you make a pilgrimage to mount kailash? [Kailash manasarovar yatra]
The pilgrimage or journey to mount Kailash is facilitated by Govt of India since 2015. The pilgrim tourists may have to apply in advance to the Ministry of External Affairs and specific number of passes will be issued to them and preference given to those who are visiting for the first time visitors.
In India, the applications are to be submitted for Kailash manasarovar yatra from June and September.
Pilgrims from India travel through two routes : with border crossings at Lipu Lekh pass in Uttarakhand and the Nathu La pass in Sikkim.
Visit mount Kailash from Nepal
Since 2015, the pilgrimage from Nepal is conducted through the Humla district in northwestern Nepal. Mount Kailash is visible from the Lapcha La pass above the Limi valley also.
Another route exists through the crossing at Rasuwa-Gyirong. Pilgrims could reach Lhasa by air before the journey to Lake Manasarovar.
The pilgrimage to mount Kailash involves trekking towards Lake Manasarovar and a circumambulation of Mount Kailash. The path around Mount Kailash is 53 km long.
The circumambulation usually begins and ends at Darchen, a small outpost located at an elevation of 4,670 m.
Trekking around the mountain can be made on foot with the help of a pony or domestic yak. The circumambulation takes three days on average with the first day trek from Darchen to Dirapuk gompa for about 14 km. The journey is resumed from Dirpauk to Zutulphuk via the Drolma pass for 19 km on the second day and the final day trekking back to Darchen .
The mystery of unclimbed mountain.
Mount Kailash had amazed many travellers on expeditions in the past centuries. In the beginning there were attempts by some trekking enthusiasts to climb the mountain. But adverse weather, snow fall paused hindrances and they abandoned the idea of trekking on the mountain. Later due to the growing religious significance and sacredness assigned by believers to the mountain, attempts to climb mount Kailash is forbidden by law.
written by dr sanjana p souparnika
image courtesy freepik.com
March 11, 2026
The orogeny of Himalayas – Impact on ecosystem &climate
The Himalayan orogeny or mountain formation is an ongoing process began from Cenozoic era from collision of tectonic plates and it had profound impact on the climate and ecosystem of the region.
Himalayas – the evolution
The Himalayan orogeny is a complex process of mountain building that happened through millions of years and is still ongoing. This article by dr sanjana p souparnika is an in-depth study of the evolution of Himalayas, the majestic mountain ranges over the centuries.
The word “orogeny” is derived from Greek and it means “mountain creation”. Orogeny is the primary geological process of mountain building happening through the collision of tectonic plates on the earth’s crust at convergent margins. This collision leads to intense folding, faulting, and crustal thickening processes. It lifts, deforms, and metamorphoses crustal material to create huge mountain ranges like the Himalayas. The Himalayas were formed around 50-100 million years ago in the Cenozoic era.

Himalayan orogeny deciphers the evolution of species
   The formation of Himalayas began roughly 50–70 million years ago and the Himalayan stratigraphic study of rocks may decipher plate tectonic movements in the geological time scale along with changes in climate and biodiversity in the region around Himalayas. This can throw light into the history of evolution of earth & its ecosystems over billions of years.
The collision of the Indian and Eurasian continental plates paved way for the Himalayan mountain building and still it is ongoing. This collision vanished the Tethys ocean[ an ancient ocean] resulting in intense folding, faulting, and crustal thickening, ultimately forming the Himalayas.
   The Cenozoic Era is the current and most recent geological era, spanning from 66 million years ago to the present day. It is also known as the “Age of Mammals”. We must remember that only 2.6 million years ago humans appeared on the surface of earth from hominids through the evolutionary process. The Homo Sapiens emerged precisely in the quaternary period of coenozic era, in the Pleistocene epoch around 300,000 years ago. In that sense, Himalayas being the youngest mountain ranges formed in the Cenozoic era has profoundly influenced the climate and ecosystems and emergence of human species.
Himalayan rock stratigraphic studies unveil the influence of mountain ranges in the evolution of human species. The rapid uplift of Himalayan mountain ranges as a result of collision of tectonic plates created new ecological niches. Ecological niches are specific environmental requirement of a species within an ecosystem such as habitat, food sources etc. that help survival and reproduction. These niches acted as a “species pumps” that instigated significant evolutionary changes through diversification, and vicariance of Asian fauna and flora.
When an ecological niche is empty with no living organisms, particularly after a new landform creation or extinction, it acts as a “pump” that attracts new species into it. The niches, allowing for the evolution of specialized, endemic species.
However, it is to be noted that, according to the competitive exclusion principle, two species with identical niches cannot coexist; one species may compete with the other, eventually leading to extinction. Nevertheless, nearly identical species clusters may co-occur sometimes.
In short When niches are differentiated, they reduce competition between species and fosters coexistence of similar species.
Himalayan mountain uplift enhanced biodiversity
The orogeny of Himalayas has immensely impacted the biodiversity through intense topographic and climatic changes.
Himalayas created diverse habitats, stimulating diversification and rapid evolution of species of fauna and flora. Diversification is the evolutionary process where species adapt to fill specific roles in an ecosystem, reducing competition and increasing biodiversity.
The newly formed mountain ranges created physical barriers, fragmenting populations and leading to allopatric speciation through vicariance. vicariance denotes a scenario where a species is divided by a geographical barrier may adapt to slightly different environmental conditions. The passive splitting of a species’ range, often due to geological changes such as mountain uplift, continental drift or climatic changes lead to vicariance. This process has crucial role in allopatric speciation. Here the physical isolation of the species in a new ecological niche leads to genetic and phenotypic divergence. Himalayan niches thus grow as great biodiversity spots.
The uplift of Himalayan ranges intensified the South Asian Monsoon, which had impacted the regional climate and determined the expansion or contraction of habitats facilitating species movement and adaptation. The sudden uplift of mountains leads to environmental shifts either species adapting to the terrains or becoming extinct.
Himalayas- phases of orogeny
Himalayan mountain building phases
The Himalayan mountain range and Tibetan plateau have been formed from the collision between the Indian Plate and Eurasian Plate which happened around 40 and 50 million years ago. The tectonic plate movement and orogeny is still ongoing moving the plates towards north every year slightly.
The Himalayas are denoted as the youngest mountain chain in the world. Himalayan mountains have come out of the Tethys Sea and that the uplift has taken place in different phases.
During Permian Period (250) million years ago, there was a supercontinent known as Pangaea. Its northern part included present-day North America and Eurasia (Europe and Asia) which is called as Laurasia. The southern part of Pangaea consisted of present-day South America, Africa, South India, Australia, and Antarctica and together it was called Gondwanaland.
Between Laurasia and Gondwanaland,existed a long, narrow, and shallow sea known as the Tethys Sea with several tributaries of rivers flowing into it. Sediments from these rivers flowed in and deposited on the floor of the Tethys Sea.
Then the powerful compression due to the northward movement of the Indian Plate compressed the sediments of the sea bed. This resulted in the folding of sediments. As the Indian plate began plunging beneath the Eurasian plate, these sediments were further folded and uplifted resulting in the formation of Himalayas. Later the folded sediments, underwent weathering and erosional activity which sculpted it as the present-day Himalayas.
The genesis of Indo-Gangetic plain was due to the consolidation of alluvium brought down by the rivers flowing from the Himalayas.
Still the summit of Mount Everest is made of marine limestone from this ancient ocean tethys. Tibetan plateau was formed due to up thrusting of the southern block of the Eurasian Plate.
The movement of tectonic plate is an ongoing process happening even today. India is moving northwards at the rate of about five cm per year and crashing into the remaining part of Asia.
The curved shape of the Himalayas convex to the south is because of the maximum force occurred at two ends of the Indian Peninsula during its northward drift.
The orogeny of Himalayas into the current landform happened through 6 phases.
6 phases involved in the formation of Himalayas
Phase 1 – 100 million years ago
Phase 2 – 71 million years ago
Phase 3 – The Drass volcanic arc
Phase 4 – Greater Himalayas were raised
Phase 5 – Rise of lesser Himalayas
Phase 6 – Rise of the Shiwalik ranges
Phase 1
The first phase of formation of Himalayas began 100 million years ago During Cretaceous Period, around 100 million years ago, the Indian plate was located b/w 10 ⁰ S – 40 ⁰ S, over the reunion hotspot. The movement of the plate gathered its mass velocity as it was closer to the equator (14cm/yr) and compression of sediment bed of the Tethys sea started towards the end of the Paleocene.
Phase 2
The second phase of Himalayan orogeny began around 71 million years ago as the plate with Gondwana land drifted towards North East and the rigid Northwestern ridge composed of the Aravalli series collided with Eurasia.
The line of collision b/w the Tibetan Plateau and the Indian Plate is called Indus–Tsangpo Suture Zone which is a compressional tectonic fault line.
As the plate began to subduct, crustal doubling below Tibet raised them into a high plateau with a thickness of around 60km
Along the southern front of the Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone, the Murree Foredeep was formed and further south, the Shiwalik foredeep was created.
Phase 3 – The Drass volcanic arc
During Oligocene period of Cenozoic era, the Drass volcanic area was formed and in the Tethys crust, a series of volcanic eruptions took place. It is situated in the Indus suture zone as an island arc on Neo- Tethys Ocean crust during cretaceous period[ 84-125 million years ago]
The plate has started anti-clock rotation and Drass became the Pivotal Axis. Thus, in the western part, pressure and compression were gradually released but towards the East, compression of Tethyan sediments has started which marks the beginning of the rising of Tethyan Himalayas. As the Indian plate pushed north 71-50 million years ago the sedimentary stack was thrust southward.The Tethys Himalayas originated from the sedimentary basin underwent folding and transformation during the period of compression.
Phase 4 – Greater Himalayas were raised.
The continuous rotation and greater compression created a major thrust in the sediments of Murree foredeep and greater Himalayas were raised about 30-35 million years ago (Oligocene to Eocene period]. The compressional thrust line is known as the Main Central Thrust (MCT). It is a 30-km-thick, medium- to high-grade metamorphic sequence of metasedimentary rocks which are interlocked by granites of Ordovician and early Miocene age.
However, majority of the meta sediments of this area of mountain ranges are of late Proterozoic to early Cambrian age.
The metasediments represent the metamorphic equivalents of the sedimentary series forming the base of the overlying “Tethys Himalaya“.
Phase 5 – Rise of lesser Himalayas
The sediments were being deposited in the Shiwalik foredeep and further movement in the plate formed the lesser Himalayas during the Miocene (15-20 million years ago.)
MCT separates greater and lesser Himalayas and the compressional thrust line along which the lesser Himalayas were lifted is known as Boundary Thrust/Fault (MBT of MBF) line.
Phase 6 – Rise of the Shiwalik ranges
In the Shiwalik foredeep, sedimentation by the Himalayan rivers formed the molasse material. It forms the southern foothills of the Himalayan Range and is essentially composed of Miocene to Pleistocene molassic sediments derived from the erosion of the Himalaya.
The partial feeding of the Shiwalik foredeep along the Himalayan Frontal Fault (HFF) led to the rise of the Shiwalik ranges which represent partially folded sedimentary range.
These molasse deposits, known as the “Murree and Sivaliks Formations”, are internally folded and imbricated.
Tethys Himalaya (TH) – A short narrative about the oldest mountain ranges of Himalayas
Tethys Himalayas represents the ocean to mountain transformation and therefore the fossils of marine organisms are found on its higher peaks with in sedimentary rocks. This region is also referred to as Tibetan zone Himalayas which covers Zanskar range in Kashmir and Spiti basin in Himachal Pradesh extending to south Tibet.
Tethys Himalayan region is located south of Indus Sangpo suture zone and north of Greater Himalayas. It is considered as the oldest parts of Himalayan range system. This zone of Himalayas originated from the seabed sediments of the ancient Tethys ocean [ an ancient ocean which got vanished by tectonic plates collision into huge mountain ranges of Himalayas].
The Tethys Himalaya is an approximately 100-km-wide synclinorium or trough formed by strongly folded and imbricated, weakly metamorphosed sedimentary series. It is 2000km long geological tectonic zone north of the main Himalayan range.
This zone has fossil remnants of northern margin of the Indian subcontinent.
Several nappes [ sheet like body of rocks], known as the “North Himalayan Nappes”, have also been described within the Tethys Himalaya which is a syclinorium of folded poorly metamorphosed fossiliferous marine sedimentary rocks [over 500 million years old].
   Tethys mountain ranges give a stratigraphic record ranging from the Upper Proterozoic to the Eocene of fossils preserved within the sediments of the Tethys Himalaya. Stratigraphic analysis of Tethys Himalayan sediments yields important clues about the geological history of the northern continental margin of the Indian sub-continent. This mountain range gives implications about its Gondwanian evolution to its continental collision with Eurasia.
written by dr sanjana p Souparnika
image courtesy freepik.com
February 24, 2026
The Himalayas – biodiversity hotspot
   The Himalayas are biodiversity hotspots with exquisite flora &fauna and endangered species of animals & birds that have garnered increased attention from environmental scientists and nature lovers worldwide in recent decades.
“The Himalayas” captivates the minds of the common man, affluent and the ascetic alike due to various reasons. The ethereal beauty of these colossal and magnificent mountain ranges captivates the human spirits, yet its profound, serene vales allure the ascetic. The grandeur of these ethereal mountain ranges captivates all who behold them.
   Beyond the aesthetic beauty and tranquility it offers, the Himalayas host a rich array of flora and fauna, including rare medicinal plants currently facing a high risk of extinction.
  Generally, the mountains encompass around 25% of the world’s terrestrial biodiversity and nearly half of the world’s recognized biodiversity ‘hotspots’ are present in the mountains.
The Himalayas – biodiversity & ecosystem
The Himalayan mountain ranges separate the Indian subcontinent from Tibetan plateau. These youngest mountain ranges cover an area of about 595,000 Km2 over 8 countries. The region contains over 10,000 plant species, over 300 mammal species, and 979 bird species, along with endemic flora and fauna.
Himalayas – click to read more
The Himalayas are home to many rare flowers and Orchids and cushion plants at 6100m height.
Ermania himalayensis, one of the highest altitude flowering plants, is found at 6300 m on the slope. It is a unique small, dense, hair-covered cushion plant on scree slopes, thriving in extreme cold and dry conditions.
  Himalaya is home to Freshwater turtles and over1300 bird species. The endangered bird species found in Himalayas include white eared night heron, grey crowned crocias, orange necked patridge.
Himalayas at its extreme altitude variations features diverse ecosystems from subtropical forests to alpine meadows.
It is home to endangered species, including the Snow Leopard, Red Panda, Himalayan Tahr, and Himalayan Monal.
Bengal tigers, Asian elephants, greater one-horned rhinoceros, and wild water buffalo also exist in the lower regions.
   The biodiversity of Himalayan region confronts severe threat from climate change, deforestation and, urbanization. The mountain ecosystems are very sensitive to climate change. Climatic conditions may change rapidly with elevation over relatively short horizontal distances, impacting quality &quantity of water resources, vegetation, ecosystems, and socio-economic settings.
The Himalayas- biodiversity hotspot under threat
The Himalayan ranges being a biogeographic region with an exceptional concentration of endemic species of plants & animals facing the threat of extinction from several factors operating in the region,is categorized as one of the prominent” biodiversity hotspots “on the globe.
This huge, awe-inspiring mountain ranges extending over 8 countries, play a pivotal role in regulating the climate of the subcontinent acting as a massive climatic barrier. They are instrumental in blocking freezing, dry air from Central Asia in winter, resulting in a warmer, moderate climate.
It’s a stark, shocking reality that Himalayas are under the threat of biodiversity loss &environmental pollution owing to multiple factors operating in the region.
Himalayan landscapes have been altered, modified, and influenced by a large number of factors including climate change, intensified anthropogenic activities, trade etc. Several studies have reported the altered and modified landscapes, degrading biodiversity, altered plant phenology, and deteriorating ecosystem productivity in the region.
According to research studies on Himalayan biodiversity, the shrinking of the cryosphere, land use for trading & construction activities, vegetation change and loss of biodiversity have adversely affected the ecosystem of the region.
Habitat fragmentation, illegal wildlife trade, and unplanned urban expansion is killing the ecosystem of the Himalayas silently day by day.
Impact of climate change on Himalayan Glaciers
Climate change has deleterious impacts on the mountains and its valleys over the decades, causing gradual loss of biodiversity as well as poor quality of water emanating from the snow cladded mountains. In addition to climate change, several other factors contribute to the ecosystem damage in the Himalayan region.
According to researchers Ren et al as per a study conducted in 2017, the region has experienced significant warming in recent decades, with the annual mean surface temperature increasing at about 0.11 °C per decade from 1901 to 2014.
Annual precipitation trends using Global Land Monthly Precipitation (GLMP) and Global Land Daily (GLDP) data does not show any significant change over time.
The Himalaya is warming at an alarming rate, probably three times higher than the global average. This may cause species to shift to higher elevations.
- Thinning & retreat of Himalayan glaciers
The cryosphere is the key component of the Himalayan ecosystem and several studies have documented the extent of climate change on it. The cryosphere encompasses the lakes, rivers, ice, snow cover, glaciers, ice caps, ice sheets, and frozen ground (permafrost) of the region. It is a critical component of the climate system that regulates global temperatures by reflecting solar radiation back into space.
Several studies on Himalayan glaciers point out that the glaciers have retreated, thinned, and lost mass in many regions of the Himalayas.
- Decreasing water content in snow cover
Research data also indicates that there is a significant and widespread decrease in the water content of snow cover (Snow Water Equivalent – SWE). This reduction, often referred to as “snow drought,” is driven by rising global temperatures and shifting precipitation patterns from snow to rain.
The Himalayan region is experiencing a critical “snow drought” in the earlier part of the current year 2026 with significantly reduced Snow Water Equivalent (SWE) and shrinking snow cover, particularly between 3,000m and 6,000m elevations.
These factors have direct impact in reducing the amount of water stored over the winter. Water scarcity is the imminent threat challenging the future of the vegetation, flora and fauna of the region.
- Permafrost degradation in Himalayan region
Himalayan permafrost is experiencing rapid, unprecedented, and largely irreversible degradation due to global warming.
Permafrost is ground—soil, rock, or sediment—that remains frozen at or below 0°C for at least two consecutive years, with some lasting for thousands of years. The permafrost degradation can have significant implications for regional infrastructure, water security, and risk of hazards.
Studies indicate that a substantial amount of permafrost was lost in the Western Himalayas between the early 2000s and late 2010s, with the climate change associated to global warming.
Recent studies have highlighted that over 60% of the high-altitude areas in specific regions, such as Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh, are underlain by permafrost, which is now actively degrading and it is unprecedented.
As per global mountain glacier studies, decrease in snowpack water content alters the crucial insulation layer on the ground, causing severe ecological consequences.
Climate change is significantly altering plant phenology in the Himalayas, causing earlier spring leaf emergence, extended growing seasons, and shifted flowering times due to warmer temperatures and reduced snow cover. Rhododendron arboreum, have shown delayed flowering. These alterations in plant phrenology threaten high-altitude biodiversity and ecosystem stability
Impact of climate change Himalayan on biodiversity &water quality
The lowering soil moisture consequent to less snow cover, thinning of glacier and degrading permafrost adversely impact the vegetation of the region. Particularly in spring and summer, it limits water availability for vegetation growth.
Without the insulating snow layer, winter temperatures can cause deeper soil freezing. This results in higher fine root mortality, nutrient loss, and lower microbial activity. It may cause extensive damage to the vegetation of the region.
Less snowpack causes earlier snowmelt, which can trigger earlier, but less productive, plant growth.
Less water storage in snowpack lead to forest water stress and eventually cause higher tree mortality rates. Forest water stress occurs when water loss through transpiration exceeds uptake from the soil, causing severe physiological strain due to drought. Forest water stress leads to loss of a large population of trees in an extensive area.
When snowpack decreases, or when rain-on-snow events increase, it leads to increased soil nutrient leaching. This may cause higher nutrient loads (like phosphorus and nitrogen) being flushed into waterways, degrading water quality.
Reduced SWE [snow water equivalent] is associated with snow draught. This causes less meltwater available in the dry season, leading to lower streamflows and reduced reservoir levels.
With reduction in total water volumes, the concentration of pollutants in remaining water sources can increase, reducing water quality for consumption and poor sustenance of aquatic life.
The Himalayas provide 30–60% of downstream freshwater, rising to 70–90% in some semi-arid and arid environments.
Water supply reduction affects irrigation, leading to lower crop yields and thus scarcity of food resources in the nearest future.
Impact of intensified anthropogenic activities on Himalayas
Ecosystem services and goods offered by mountains are of global significance, as they provide fresh water, biodiversity, mineral resources etc.
Deforestation, habitat fragmentation, overgrazing, and road construction, especially in the Eastern Himalayas cause adverse impacts on the Himalayan ecosystem.
Illegal wildlife trade poses a threat to endangered species. Construction of dams and other illegal encroachment to sensitive zones also destroy the biodiversity and eco system.
The Himalayas- Biodiversity Conservation Efforts
To the conserve the ecosystem of Himalayan region efforts are being made in a stringent way as the region has been listed among the four biodiversity hotspots in India.
The strategic conservation measures include :
- Protected zones:
Implementation of national parks and sanctuaries, such as the, Barsey Rhododendron Sanctuary, where grazing is banned to protect endemic species.
- Sustainable Practices are recommended &practiced
- Development of medicinal plant conservation zones
- promoting, community-led, conservation initiatives.
- Enforcement of regulations against illegal mining, and regulating unsustainable tourism.
- sustainable agricultural practices.
- addressing the impacts of climate change
- image courtesy: freepik.com
- written by dr sanjana p souparnika[ copyright]
February 12, 2026
The great Himalayas- A geographical overview of the mountain ranges & sacred linking with myths
   The Himalayas are the majestic mountain ranges spreading over territories of six countries. The mountain ranges are the determinants of the climate and ecosystems of Indian subcontinent. Himalayas are intricately linked with myths of the land & has been a revered zone of divinity for various religions since antiquity.
The Himalayas extends over territories of six countries including India, China, Nepal. Bhutan, Pakistan and Afghanistan. The mountain range is involved in dispute related to sovereignty in Kashmir region among India, China and Pakistan.
Geographical borders of Himalayan ranges
The Himalayan range is bordered on the northwest by the Karakoram and Hindu Kush ranges, on the north by the Tibetan Plateau, and on the south by the Indo-Gangetic Plain.
   The mountain ranges contain some of the Earth’s highest peaks. The Mount Everest, more than 100 peaks exceeding elevations of 7,200 m (23,600 ft) above sea level lie in the Himalayas.
The word ‘Himalayas’ hails from the Sanskrit words hima and aalaya which means” abode of snow”.
Himalayas give origin to many rivers and its tributaries. The Indus, the Ganges, and the Tsangpo–Brahmaputra, rise in the vicinity of the Himalayas.

Himalayas through the veil of mythology
India has a unique culture and heritage which extends beyond its borders and profoundly shaped the cultures of South Asia and Tibet.
Rivers are the cradle of civilizations everywhere on the globe since prehistoric times. Mountains and rivers with their tributaries nourish and nurture life in their vicinity. Landforms and river banks have played a significant role in shaping the cultural heritage and beliefs of the subcontinent. The livelihoods of populations living along the riverbanks are dependent on the availability of water, crops, cultivation, aquatic life forms, etc.
    Ancient tribes believed that mountains provided them security from invasions and sudden attacks; moreover, they believed that rain and river water originated from the mountain tops. Consequently, the ancient people who inhabited the subcontinent started worshipping mountains and rivers.
    Many Indian hamlets still revere the local landforms, water bodies, and trees as gods and goddesses. This deep connection with nature transforms mountains and rivers into divine, personified figures.
   This sacred linking can be traced in the texts and inscriptions of the entire subcontinent. Mountains were considered as holy as rivers, and ancient people believed that gods resided on mountain tops. Even today, most temples in India are built on mountains and in their valleys. Rivers have also been personified as goddesses. The story of the Himalayas, with its rich mythological connections, is phenomenal.
The word “Himalaya” is mentioned in ancient epics and purana texts as “Himavaan ” as a personified king and the goddess Devi Parvathi is regarded as the daughter of Himavan. Therefore, Himalaya mountain ranges have significant role in Indian mythology as sacred mountains in Hinduism and Buddhism.
Themount Kailash is regarded as the abode of Hindu god Shiva and his consort goddess Devi Parvati with their children. This mountain range is visited by millions of pilgrim tourists every year. The pilgrimage generally involves trekking towards Lake Manasarovar and a circumambulation of Mount Kailash. Hindus take a ritual bath in the Manasarovar lake before doing circumambulation.
Pilgrims believe that doing a circumambulation of Mount Kailash is spiritually uplifting towards salvation or liberation cleansing the impurities of minds.
Mount Kailash is located in Ngari Prefecture, Tibet Autonomous Region of China. The peak of Mount Kailash is located at an elevation of 6,638 m (21,778 ft), near the western trijunction between China, India and Nepal.
Mount Kailash is situated close to Manasarovar and Rakshastal lakes. The sources of four rivers: Indus, Sutlej, Brahmaputra, and Ghaghara lie in the vicinity of the region. Mount Kailash is sacred in Bon, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism.
Hindu text Skanda Purana offers an interesting narrative about mount Kailash as follows:
“There are no mountains like the Himalaya, for in them are Kailas and Manasarovar. As the dew is dried up by the morning Sun, so are the sins of mankind dried up by the sight of the Himalaya.”
   Kailash and Manasarovar are mentioned in the Hindu epics Ramayana and Mahabharata.
According to Jain scriptures, Rishabhadeva, the first Tirthankar of Jainism attained moksha (liberation) on Mount Kailash.
However, due to the beliefs of different faiths that revere Mount Kailash, setting foot on its slopes or attempting to climb it is forbidden by law.
Indian subcontinent has several such sacred linking with its geography. The rivers originating from Himalayas such as Indus, Ganges along with their tributaries are considered holy and this sacred linking is evident in Shiv purana.
The river Ganges is considered as goddess Ganga, a consort of lord Shiva and it is believed that Ganga is residing in the locks of Shivas hair and flows from there to earth. ‘The descend of Ganga ‘is a celebrated festival in Himalayan states of India and the mythology related to the descend of Ganga is intricately connected with Lord Shiva.
Geography of Himalayan mountain ranges
The Himalayas were uplifted after the collision of the Indian tectonic plate with the Eurasian plate. It is an ongoing collision which began approximately 50-55 million years ago. This intense continental convergence, following the closure of the Tethys Ocean, causes the crust to buckle and thicken, driving the rapid, continuous uplift of the mountain range at rates exceeding 1 cm/year.
The Himalayan mountain range extends west-northwest to east-southeast in an arc 2,400 km.
  Its western anchor, Nanga Parbat, lies just south of the northernmost bend of the Indus river. Its eastern anchor, Namcha Barwa, lies immediately west of the great bend of the Yarlung Tsangpo River. The Indus-Yarlung suture zone, along which the headwaters of these two rivers flow, separates the Himalayas from the Tibetan plateau.
The rivers also separate the Himalayas from the Karakorams, the Hindu Kush, and the Transhimalaya ranges
The range varies in width from 350 km in the west to 151 km in the east
Mountain ranges of Himalayas -south to north
The Himalayas include four parallel mountain ranges from south to north:
The Sivalik Hills on the south; the Lower Himalayan Range; the Great Himalayas, which is the highest and central range; and the Tibetan Himalayas on the north. The Karakoram ranges are regarded as separate ranges from the Himalayas.
In the middle of the great curve of the Himalayan mountains lie the 8,000 m (26,000 ft) peaks of Dhaulagiri and Annapurna in Nepal, separated by the Kali Gandaki Gorge. The gorge splits the Himalayas into Western and Eastern sections, both ecologically and orographically – the pass at the head of the Kali Gandaki, the Kora La, is the lowest point on the ridgeline between Everest and K2 (the highest peak of the Karakoram range).
To the east of Annapurna are the 8,000 m peaks of Manaslu and across the border in Tibet, Shishapangma.
To the south of these is situated Kathmandu, the capital of Nepal and the largest city in the Himalayas. East of the Kathmandu Valley lies the valley of the Bhote/Sun Kosi river which rises in Tibet and provides the main overland route between Nepal and China – the Araniko Highway/China National Highway 318.
Further east is the Mahalangur Himal with four of the world’s six highest mountains, including the highest: Cho Oyu, Everest, Lhotse, and Makalu. The Khumbu region, well-known for trekking, is found here on the south-western approaches to Everest.
The Arun river drains the northern slopes of these mountains, before turning south and flowing to the range to the east of Makalu.
In the far east of Nepal, the Himalayas rise to the Kangchenjunga massif on the border with India, the third-highest mountain in the world, the most easterly 8,000 m (26,000 ft) summit and the highest point of India.
The eastern side of Kangchenjunga is in the Indian state of Sikkim. Formerly an independent Kingdom, it lies on the main route from India to Lhasa, Tibet, which passes over the Nathu La pass into Tibet.
East of Sikkim lies the ancient Buddhist Kingdom of Bhutan. The highest mountain in Bhutan is Gangkhar Puensum, which is also a strong candidate for the highest unclimbed mountain in the world. The Himalayas here are becoming increasingly rugged, with heavily forested steep valleys.
The Himalayas continue, turning slightly northeast, through the Indian State of Arunachal Pradesh as well as Tibet, before reaching their easterly conclusion in the peak of Namche Barwa, situated in Tibet, inside the great bend of the Yarlang Tsangpo river. On the other side of the Tsangpo, to the east, are the Kangri Garpo mountains. The high mountains to the north of the Tsangpo, including Gyala Peri, however, are also sometimes included in the Himalayas.
Far west from Dhaulagiri, Western Nepal,the home to Rara Lake exists. The Karnali River rises in Tibet but cuts through the centre of the region.
Further west of the border, the Sarda River provides a trade route into China, where on the Tibetan plateau lies the high peak of Gurla Mandhata.
Around the Lake Manasarovar lies the sacred Mount Kailash in the Kailash Ranges ,and close to it is the origin of the four main holy rivers of Himalayas which are revered in Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism & Sufism.
In Uttarakhand, the Himalayas are named as the Kumaon and Garhwal Himalayas with the high peaks of Nanda Devi and Kamet.
Uttarkhand has several significant pilgrimage destinations such as Chota Chaar Dhaam, with Gangotri, the source of origin of the holy river Ganges, Yamunotri, the site of origin of the river Yamuna, and the temples at Badrinath and Kedarnath.
Himachal Pradesh, is popular Indian state with its hill stations Shimla and Dharamsala. This region marks the beginning of the Punjab Himalaya and the Sutlej River, the most easterly of the five tributaries of the Indus, cuts through the range here.
Further west, the Himalayas form the mountainous Jammu region and the renowned Kashmir Valley with the town and lakes of Srinagar.
The Himalayas form most of the south-west portion of the disputed Indian-administered union territory of Ladakh. The twin peaks of Nun Kun are the only mountains over 7,000 m (4.3 miles) in this part of the Himalayas.
The Himalayas extending into the western end in the dramatic 8000 m peak of Nanga Parbat, which rises over 8,000 m (26,000 ft) above the Indus valley and is the most westerly of the 8000 m summits. The western end terminates at a magnificent point near Nanga Parbat where the Himalayas intersect with the Karakoram and Hindu Kush ranges, in the disputed Pakistani-administered territory of Gilgit-Baltistan.
Some parts of the Himalayas, such as the Kaghan Valley, Margalla Hills, and Galyat tract, extend into the Pakistani provinces of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Punjab.
Apart from the geological and geographical significance The Himalayas are ecologically sensitive biodiversity hotspots , defence barrier and determinants of climate change in the subcontinent.
This majestic mountain ranges amaze the world for centuries with its splendour and grandeur and captivate adventure trekking lovers with its glorious peaks.
January 29, 2026