The Badami cave temples are a complex of Buddhist, Hindu and Jain cave temples located in Badami, an ancient heritage town in the Bagalkot district in northern part of Karnataka, India. This is an instance of rock cut temple built in Chalukya architectural style
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History & geographical location
The Badami cave temples are located about 142 km east of Belagavi and 140 km northwest of Hampi.
Badami a heritage town, was previously known as “Vataapi”, the capital of the early Chalukya dynasty. Chalukyas ruled a significant portion of Karnataka from the 6th to the 8th century. Badami is situated on the west bank of a man-made lake Agastya Teertha ringed by an earthen wall with stone steps. In this serene heritage town, you can feel the footsteps of history in the vestiges and artefacts centuries have left behind.
It is surrounded on the north and south by forts built during Early Chalukya reign and in later times. The Malaprabha River is flowing silently [4.8 km away) through this pilgrim land of ancient architectural marvels. The journey to Badami cave temples will definitely provide you an enthralling and delightful experience transporting into another period of time.
The UNESCO world heritage site Pattadakal [23km]and Aihole – another site with over a hundred ancient and early medieval era Hindu, Jain and Buddhist monuments[ 35km] are close to Badami.
The Badami temple complex has principally 4 caves. The first three caves feature sculptures of Hindu gods and legends focusing on Shiva and Vishnu, while Cave 4 features Jain icons and themes.
It is believed that the cave temples are built in the late 6th century onwards. The exact dating is known only for Cave 3, which is a Hindu temple dedicated to Lord Vishnu.
An inscription found here records the dedication of the shrine by Mangalesha in Saka 500 (solar calendar, 578/579 CE). The inscription is written in the old Kannada language and it denotes the dating of these rock cave temples to the 6th century. This makes the cave 3 temple of Badami as the oldest firmly-dated Hindu cave temple in India.
Architecture of Badami cave temples
The temple is built on a rocky terrain in red sandstone and here you can explore the Chalukya architectural style.The Badami rock temple caves include 4 caves, all in the escarpment of the hill in soft Badami sandstone formation, to the south-east of the town.
The complex includes four caves principally, although a few caves are also located in the premises. Around the lake, Badami has additional caves and one of them is believed to be a Buddhist cave. Another Cave like gallery known as Arali Tirtha has around twenty-seven carvings.
Four cave temples in the escarpment of the hill to the south-east of the town were carved into the cliff’s monolithic stone face. The escarpment is above a man-made lake called Agastya Teertha, created by an earthen dam faced with stone steps.
The largest and highest cave is Cave 3 in the complex and it is situated further to the east on the northern face of the hill. The fourth cave, Cave 4, is a few steps down further east. The cave has fine carvings exhibiting matured stage of Karnataka ancient art. Cave 4 is dedicated to revered figures of Jainism.
The artwork in Caves 1 and 2 exhibit the northern Deccan style of the 6th and 7th centuries, while those in Cave 3 represent two ancient Indian artistic traditions; the northern Nagara and the southern Dravida styles.Cave 3 also shows icons and reliefs in the so-called Vesara style, a fusion of ideas from the two styles, as well as some of the earliest surviving historical examples in Karnataka of yantra-chakra motifs (geometric symbolism) and colored fresco paintings.
Cave 1 is a Hindu temple and here you can find various sculptures of Hindu divinities and themes along with a prominent carving of the dancing Shiva as Nataraja. Cave 2 goes in the same architectural line of cave 1 in its layout and dimensions, featuring Hindu subjects of which the Hari Hara, Ardhanari shiva, Mahishamardini, Dwi Bahu Ganesha and Skanda in a separate antechamber on extended cave at western side-next to great Nataraja sculpture. The Cave 2 also has premier images of Vishnu as Trivikrama and it is the largest.
The largest cave, Cave 3, featuring Vishnu as Ananta seated on coiled serpent, Varaha with Bhudevi, Harihara, Narasimha in standing posture, great image of Trivikrama and Virata Vishnu.
which Alice Boner – a Swiss art historian and Indologist, states is a time division symbolizing the cosmic wheel.
The Badami cave temples- Interior architecture &themes
Cave I of Badami :
Nataraja Carving is the significant feature of this cave. The cave depicts the Tandava-dancing Shiva as Nataraja on the rock face to the right of entrance. The image, 5 feet (1.5 m) tall, has 18 arms (9 in left and 9 on right) in a form that expresses the dance position (about 9×9=81 combinations in total) arranged in a geometric pattern. The eighteen arms express Natya mudras (symbolic hand gestures), with some holding objects such as drums, a flame torch, a serpent, a trident and an axe.
Shiva has his son Ganesha and the bull Nandi by his side.
The wall depicts the goddess Durga of Shaktism tradition slaying the buffalo-demon Mahishasura. The carvings and its accuracy show that sculptors who built this cave temple were very proficient in the Natya mudras of Bharatanatya dance form.
Mahisasura Mardini Carving
On the right side of the Nataraja carving is a carving of Mahishasura mardini with Chaturbhuja (Chatur means 4, Bhuja means hands). The sculpture depicts the killing of the demon Mahishasura by godess Durga. According to legends and myths Mahishasura, a demon was the son of Mahisi and great grandson of Bhahmarishi Kashyapa.
On the left of the entrance is a two-handed Shaiva dvarapala who holds a trident, and below him is a bull-elephant fused image where they share a head; seen from left it is an elephant and from right a bull.
Harihara Carving
Inside the veranda, the cave depicts a carved sculpture of Harihara, a 7.75-foot (2.36 m) high sculpture of a fused image that is half-Shiva and half-Vishnu. He is flanked by the goddesses Parvati and Lakshmi on each side.
Ardhanareshwara Carving
To the right, toward the end of the wall, is a relief sculpture of Ardhanarishvara, a fused image of Shiva and his consort Parvati. One half of the image has Shiva with a moon on his mukuta (head), snakes in his hands, earrings and next to the half that represents Parvati is an attendant carrying a tray of jewels.
It delineates the vision of the Chalukya kings delivering message to the Chalukya citizens about gender equality.
On the ceiling of this cave are images of the Vidyadhara couples as well as couples in courtship and erotic Mithuna scenes.
Through a cleft in the back wall of the cave is a square sanctuary with more carved images.
In the mantapa is a seated Nandi facing the garbha ghruha (sacrum sanctum) containing a Shiva linga.
Cave 2 of Badami
Cave 2 is above and to the east of Cave 1 and faces north. It was built in late 6th or early 7th century. It is smaller than Cave 1 and it is dedicated primarily to Lod Vishnu. It depicts the legend of Vishnu in his Trivikrama form.
Inside the temple are friezes showing stories from Hindu texts such as the Bhagavata Purana. These show the legend of cosmic ocean churning (Samudra Manthan) and Krishna’s birth and flute playing indicating the theological and cultural significance of these in 7th century India.
The ceiling and door head carvings show Gajalakshmi, the swastika symbols, flying couples, Brahma, Vishnu.
The ceiling of Cave 2 shows a wheel with sixteen fish spokes in a square frame. The end bays have a flying couple and Vishnu on Garuda.
Cave3 of Badami
Cave 3 is considered as the earliest dated Hindu temple in the Deccan region. It is dedicated to Lord Vishnu and it is the largest cave in the complex.
The cave is facing north, 60 steps from Cave 2 at a higher level. The cave is 15 feet (4.6 m) high; it is supported by six pillars, each measuring 2.5 square feet (0.23 m2). It has intricately carved friezes and giant figures of Trivikrama, Anantasayana, Vasudeva, Varaha, Harihara and Narasimha.
This temple is built in Vaishnavite theme; however, it also shows Harihara on its southern wall – half Vishnu and half Shiva shown fused as one.
Cave 3 also shows fresco paintings on the ceiling, some of which are faded and broken. These are among the earliest known surviving evidence of fresco painting in Indian art.
The Hindu god Brahma is portrayed on Hamsa vahana in one of the mural paintings. The wedding of Shiva and Parvati, attended by various Hindu deities is depicted in another painting.
Cave 4 of Badami
The cave 4 is located immediately adjacent to and east of Cave 3. The floor is situated about 10 feet lower and is the smallest of the four caves of this land. It is dedicated to Tirthankaras, the revered figures of Jainism.
It was constructed after the first three, sponsored by Hindu kings in later part of the 7th-century. Some scholars are of the view that this cave may have been created in the 8th century.
Also it has been proposed that some embellishments seems to be added in the subsequent centuries until about the 11th or 12th century.
Cave 4 shows detailed carvings and a diverse range of motifs. The cave has a five-bayed entrance with four square columns – each with brackets and capitals. To the back of this verandah is a hall with two standalone and two joined pillars
Inside the cave are major carvings of Bahubali, Parshvanatha and Mahavira with symbolic display of other Tirthankaras.
Bahubali is standing in Kayotsarga meditating posture with vines wrapped around his leg, his classic iconography. Parshvanatha is shown with the five-headed cobra hood.
Mahavira is represented sitting on a lion throne.
Other carvings include Indrabhuti Gautama covered by four snakes, Brahmi and Sundari.
In the sanctum is an image of Mahavira resting on a pedestal containing a 12th-century Kannada inscription marking the death of one Jakkave. Twenty-four small Jaina Tirthankara images are engraved on the inner pillars and walls. In addition there are idols of Yakshas, Yakshis and Padmavati.
Other unnamed caves of Badami
Apart from the numbered 4 main caves of Badami, this land has a few other centuries old caves with statues and carvings. History sleeps in this land of temples which is believed to be built in medieval era. On the other side of the lake, near the Bhutanatha temple, there is a 7th-8th century Chalukya period cave with a carved statue seated over a sculpted throne with reliefs showing people holding chauris (fans), a Pipal tree, elephants, and lions in an attacking pose.
According to colonial-era texts of John Murray – a Jainism scholar & missionary in British India, the main image carved in this Cave is that of a Jaina figure. However, it has been contradicted by archeologists Henry Cousens and A. Sundara and their views have been buttressed by local legends, which proposes that the statue is of an ancient king. Because in a photograph of the statue taken before its face was damaged, the figure lacked the Ushnisha lump that typically found with Buddha’s image.
The statue has several unusual, non-Buddha ornaments such as rings for fingers, a necklace, and a chest-band; it wears a Hindu Yajnopavita thread and its head is stylistically closer to a Jina head than a Buddha’s head. These features point out that the statue may be of a king represented with features of various traditions. There are no clear-cut evidence regarding the century of construction of this main statue.
Adjacent to the controversial cave are other monuments belonging to the ancient centuries. One of them is a small shrine consisting of a 7th-century rock carving of Anantashayana Vishnu, or reclining Vishnu with Lakshmi and Garuda in namaste posture.
In 2013, Manjunath Sullolli, Assistant Director of Bagalkot district working for the state government of Karnataka, reported the discovery of another cave with 27 rock carvings, about 500 metres (1,600 ft) from the four main caves.
Water gushes from this newly discovered cave year-round. It depicts Vishnu and other Hindu deities, and features an inscription in the Devanagari script. The dating of these carvings also is unknown.
Best time to visit Badamicaves
November to February is the best season to visit. The weather is fine cool and and clear. Other months are less recommended as scorching summer or Monsoon rain may make it difficult to travel and explore.
Internet Connectivity
BSNL or Cell one connectivity is available
How to reach Badami ?
The nearest airports to Badami in Karnataka are Hubli and Belgam. Hubli is connected to Banglore and Mumbai airports.
From Hubli cabs are available to Badami[105km].
From Belgam to Badami [150km]
Badami is connected to other cities by bus.
For international travelers
Flight to Banglore and train to Badami [447km]-7 hours 51 minutes
Flight to Pune airport[Mumbai] and then train to Badami[470km] 9 hours 28 min
Flight to Hyderabad [Andrapradesh]airport and train to Badami.[420km] 9 hours 32 min
References
1.Evolution of Temple Architecture – Aihole-Badami- Pattadakalhttps://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5972
The cognitive decline or impairment in brain functions may happen prematurely or with advancing age. Exercise & good sleeping habits are crucial for brain health.
Ageing is often associated with problems of memory and understanding or comprehension. We can call it scientifically as cognitive decline or cognitive impairment. The grades or intensity of which vary from person to person depending on various genetic as well as environmental factors. It can happen at a younger age also prematurely. Mild to severe cognitive impairment is associated with various brain diseases as well as stress in various forms.
What is cognition?
Cognition means your understanding, comprehension and other mental abilities. Cognitive function or cognition refers to higher-level functions of the brain such as acquiring knowledge, perception, attention, judgment, decision making, processing speed, executive function, cognitive flexibility, task switching, comprehension, response inhibition, and memory performance etc.
Causes of cognitive impairment or decline in functions of brain
The cognitive decline may happen prematurely or with advancing age. This cognitive impairment is a condition which can affect the independence and quality of life a person. In short, our brain functions are to be maintained in well condition as far as possible, by preventing factors causing the impairment.
It is a fact that in this area of medical science still there is obscurity regarding the exact cause of cognitive decline apart from ageing. Alzheimer’s diseases is one of the most common causes of cognitive impairment and it is seen in people with positive family history and in those people also who had no genetic predisposition. The only proposed cause is free radical damage to brain. Free radicals are by products of metabolism in human body. It also reaches our body from outside through food and chemicals. Whatever the source of origin of free radicals they cause oxidative stress to brain. It is a form of brain cell injury and leave behind some deposits in brain which cause nerve cell damage.
Apart from these various other factors causing cognitive impairment such as
· Erratic sleep or sleep deprivation
Sleep is a very important factor for memory and recall. Brain &nervous system research studies have shown that lack of sleep can impair memory &recall functions. Sleep deprivation may cause brain fatigue & it can elevate your stress levels.
Sleep is very much essential to regenerate certain areas of brain and its proper functioning.
Scientific studies point out that during the state of sleep, the cerebrospinal fluid removes the beta-amyloid metabolite in the brain. These fibrils are harmful to brain functions and they have been implicated in the disease pathology of Alzheimer’s disease.
Also, sleep deprivation can negatively affect motor functions, cognitive performances and human behavioral patterns probably due to the excess accumulation of toxic metabolites like beta-amyloid fibrils due to sleep deprivation. The accumulation can lead to severe brain injury if the causes leading to it persists for a prolonged time.
Each phase of the sleep cycle restores and rejuvenates the brain for optimal function. When sleep is deprived, the glymphatic system of brain does not get a chance to eliminate these toxins that accumulate, and negatively affects cognitive abilities, behavior, and judgment.
Lack of sleep also affects your linguistic abilities. Temporal lobe of brain is associated with language processing, so lack of sleep may cause slurred speech because the brain’s incapacity to process the neuronal signal at optimum levels during waking hours.
Sleep can affect the neurotransmitter chemical levels in brain.
Studies have shown that sleep [particularly NREM sleep]is important for turning off the norepinephrine, serotonin and histamine neurotransmitters, which is the time available for receptors to “rest” and regain sensitivity to be more effective at naturally produced levels again.
Sleep deprivation prevent the brain to function normally because of the neurotransmitters, and neurons that are unable to rest or regenerate.
Studies have proven that lack of sleep affects long-term memory, working memory, attention, higher order executive function, and various decision making processes.
· Physical inactivity & lack of exercise of sedentary life style
Physical exercise has very crucial role in boosting brain functions. It improves focus, memory and concentration. Sedentary life style and lack of exercise can accelerate the pace of cognitive decline or impairment.
How to improve the brain functions & cognition?
Exercise & training
Exercise training can improve memory and cognition through the unique potential of human brain called neuroplasticity. Neuroplasticity is the term referring to the brain’s ability to change, reorganize, or grow neuronal networks. This can involve functional changes due to brain damage or structural changes due to learning.
Regular or consistent exercise is an effective solution for neuronal health and functional abilities. It is thought that exercise-induced memory improvement might be mediated through neurotrophic factors, and exerkines.
Exerkines are defined as signaling molecules released in response to acute and/or chronic exercise, which exert their effects through various pathways. Many organs, cells and tissues release these factors, including skeletal muscle (myokines), the heart (cardiokines), liver (hepatokines), white adipose [fat]tissue (adipokines), brown adipose tissue (baptokines) and neurons (neurokines). Exerkines have potential roles in improving cardiovascular, metabolic, immune and neurological health.
· Brain exercises to improve cognition
Brain exercises modify neuronal activity in such a way that they may help improvement in memory, cognitive functions or mental abilities. Practise the following things:
· New skill development
· Learning a new language
· Recall what you have read
· Cooking
· Visualization of words, things etc.
· Eye- hand coordination activities such as playing tennis, chess etc.
· Sports games
· Meditation
· Completing a jigsaw puzzle
· Socializing
Learning new and complex skills such as playing instruments, games
· Solving math problems
· Increasing vocabulary or word power
· Listening to music
In order to boost your memory do physical exercise, practice brain exercise and ensure that you get adequate sleep. Erratic sleep may disrupt your memory and other brain functions even if you exercise everyday. Therefore ensure that you sleep for at least 6-8 hours a day.
Good sleep habits
Good sleep routine has to be developed by all-Ensure regular and fixed timing for sleep. Sleep for atleast 6-8 hours a day.
Avoid excessive eating or being starved before sleeping
Avoid bright light exposure of the eyes before sleep
Create a good sleep environment. Reduce bright lights.
Basil leaves have many health benefits including nutritional &medicinal . They are found to be useful in the treatment of fever, common cold , cough ,asthma & stress. It helps in purifying blood, reducing blood glucose and cholesterol level, helps in managing mouth ulcer and arthritis.
How basil leaves help to improve your health?
Do you know basil leaves benefit your health & wellness in a myriad ways? Basil leaves have culinary as well as medicinal uses. It is a good flavoring agent in various cuisines worldwide. The leaves and the essential oil distilled from the flowering plants are used as powerful flavoring agents. It is used for treating cough and also used in cosmetics. Basil leaves are also found to be helpful in boosting your memory.
Basil leaves have numerous health benefits & they are useful in the treatment of fever, common cold & stress. It helps in purifying blood, reducing blood glucose, risk of heart attacks and cholesterol level, mouth ulcer and arthritis.
Its nutritional & medicinal values are extensively researched of late by the scientific community and the studies points out that basil leaves are rich source of vitamin A, Vitamin C, calcium, phosphorus, beta carotene. All these vitamins are extremely good antioxidants which help to prevent many serious diseases of vital organs. In addition these vitamin antioxidants function as anti-ageing factors to your skin enhancing its glow.
The plant details – name, family &various species of basil
Basil leaves are glossy and oval-shaped, with smooth or slightly toothed edges that typically cup slightly; the leaves are arranged oppositely along the square stems. In India it is called babui tulsi.
It is known by various names in different geographical areas including basilica (in French), basilikum or basilienkraut (in German), ba-silico (in Italian), rehan (in Arabic) . In the English language, it is known as basil, common basil or sweet basil.
Basil is an aromatic herb of the mint family, with a pungent clovelike flavor.
Basil (Ocimum basilicum) belongs to the mint family Lamiaceae and genus ocimum.
Various species of basil are produced and used commercially including the small-leaf common basil, the larger leaf Italian basil, and the large lettuce-leaf basil.
Thai basil (O. basilicum var. thyrsiflora) and the related holy basil (O. tenuiflorum) and lemon basil (O. ×citriodorum) are commonly used in foods of Asians.
History of the plant-its origin & global usage
Basil leaves have been mentioned in Greek mythology. In ancient Egypt, basil has been used in combination with other essences and oils, during religious ceremonies and for mummification.
These leaves were introduced in England in the sixteenth century. Basil leaves were widely used in medicine and for culinary and perfumery purposes all over the Europe, particularly in France during that time.
Basil leaves oil – properties
Their oil possesses various functions like antimicrobial activity, anticancer activity, and also anti-inflammatory activities [3]. This may protect you from microbes and cancers.
There are various compounds present in the oil of basil leaves such as oxygenated monoterpenes, sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, and oxygenated sesquiterpenes. They also contain various components like linalool, camphor, and germacrene .
What are the health benefits of basil leaves?
• Basil leaves are very good Antioxidants
Vitamin A, C and beta carotenes are effective antioxidants which fight against free radicals attacking the cells of your body. The free radical attack is detrimental to your health as it may cause various organ diseases and premature skin ageing.
Ocimum basilicum (O. basilicum) species contains more than 20 bioactive compounds such as linalool, estragole, methyl eugenol, 1,8-cineole, etc. Flavonoids, catechins, and triterpenes showed protective effect on oxidative stress induced by environmental factors. Oxidative stress caused by free radicals is the main trigger for various serious diseases of human body. Basil leaves offers you antioxidant protection effectively.
Basil leaves have potential to prevent inflammations
A2017 study shows that basil leaves essential oils have anti-inflammatory properties [4].
Boosts health of bones &muscles
Calcium, phosphorus and magnesium in basil leaves help in strengthening your bones and muscles.
• Basil leaves helps to reduce your cholesterol levels in the body
Basil leaves helps to reduce LDL cholesterol and triglycerides.
The underlying mechanisms of the effect found may be due to an increased stimulation of the lipolytic activity of plasma lipoprotein lipase and liver enzyme lipase[6].
• Basil leaves can improves your fasting blood sugar
Animal study shows that basil leaves can lower blood glucose level[7].
• Basil leaves help to manage lung diseases such as bronchitis,asthma etc.
A study shows that O. basilicum basil leaves are traditionally used in different cultures across the globe for the management of lung diseases and other organ disorders[5].
The bioactive ingredients of O. basilicum have been described to prevent different viral infections.
Three types of compounds including linalool, apigenin, and ursolic acid have been found to be protective against various types of human adenovirus complications in people having bronchitis.
Basil leaves compounds have bronchodilatory effects against chronic lung diseases such as asthma &bronchitis.
Various studies showed the relaxant effects of O. basilicum and its main constituents including linalool and eugenol, and have showed bronchodilatory effects. However, further extensive studies are needed in this area to confirm the effects more convincingly.
Foods that you can make with basil leaves
You may include basil leaves in various types of salads. Further more, you may cook various veg and no veg recipes with basil leaves such as:
The habit of procrastination or delaying your work by setting aside may be a big reason for your failure in achieving success. Procrastination is an impediment or hindrance on your way to progress in life. Say good bye to procrastination. But how? How to maximize your productivity & creative potential?
Improve your physical & mental health
Your mind is under the control of your brain and your mood is a big factor. So healthy habits play a key role in developing a healthy mind. You can achieve that pinnacle of success by training and nourishing your brain’s health. In a nutshell eat healthy to improve your physical and mental health including more vegetables, fruits, legumes, nuts and seeds in your diet plan. Exercise regularly at least for 40 minutes.
Begin the action immediately to avoid procrastination
The best way to overcome procrastination is to start taking action before your brain says NO with multiple lame excuses. Do not think about the perfect action plan or time to do something. Just begin. Only that’s enough to generate interest in your work. From that moment of overcoming procrastination you should begin the next step of action.
Prioritize the tasks
You may have to make an action plan at this stage to go forward with it. Identify your work strategy & policies and then try to prioritize tasks on the basis of urgency &importance. Focus on very significant & urgent tasks with higher priority. Later move on to tasks that have been assigned with lower priorities.
Be clear about your targets
Have great clarity about your goals. Always choose achievable less difficult goals first. Focus on small achievable goals first as fulfilling these can boost your confidence and may guide you to achieve more complex tasks.
Organize your work &time well
Manage your time as per the priority of the work. Avoid distractions and include the habit of consistency into your life. Work consistently sitting everyday at a particular time , in a particular space. Your work space and time schedule will become part of your life gradually. Consistent action may definitely help you progress in life.
Cultivate growth mindset
Adopt a positive growth mindset which can find challenges as learning opportunities. Embrace hindrances with a positive mind .Never run away from them. Adversity may help you grow if you are ready to face it with adequate planning & strategies.
Celebrate your success
Even your small successes can boost your motivation and may help you achieve your bigger tasks or goals eventually. It can tell you that you are on the right path and help you advance in that direction overtime. So celebrate your success every time with your team mates or supporters.
The Tamil literature encompasses a wide a collection of literary works that originated from a tradition spanning more than two thousand years in South India. It also portrays the history of Tamil Nadu, with its social, economic, political and cultural trends of various periods.
Tamil is one of the oldest Dravidian languages of Indian subcontinent. The Tamil writing system evolved from the Brahmi script. The scriptures in Tamil are written mostly as religious texts of Sangam period and a few in post Sangam period. The contributors to the Tamil literature are mainly from Tmil speaking people of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Eelam Tamils from Sri Lanka, as well as the Tamil diaspora.
The Sangam literature
The early Sangam literature, dated before 300 BCE, is one of the most renowned epic poetries of Tamil literature and contains anthologies of many Tamil poets depicting various aspects of life, including love, war, social values and religion.
Scholars consider this Tamil tradition-based chronology as ahistorical as well as mythical. The sangam period and literature originated in South India and lasted between the period 3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE. Most scholars suggest the historical Sangam literature era, also called the Sangam period, spanned from c. 300 BCE to 300 CE, while others variously place this early classical Tamil literature period a bit later before 300 CE.
According to Kamil Zvelebil, a Tamil literature and history scholar, the most acceptable range for the Sangam literature is 100 BCE to 250 CE, based on the linguistic and text references. Tamil tradition holds the earliest Sangam poetry to be older than twelve millennia. Modern linguistic scholarship places the poems between the first century B.C.E. and the third century C.E. The age of Sangam is established through the correlation between the evidence on foreign trade found in the poems and the writings by ancient Greek and Romans such as Periplus.
The sangam literature is historically known as ‘the poetry of the noble ones’.
It is believed that Sangam literature originated in three chankams, or literary academies, in Madurai, India, from the 1st to the 4th century BCE. The Tamil tradition and legends link it to three legendary literary gatherings around Madurai and Kapaṭapuram and the first lasted over 4,440 years, the second over 3,700 years, and the third over 1,850 years.
The Sangam age is considered by the Tamil people as the golden era of the Tamil language. During this period, the Tamil country was ruled by the Cheras, Pandyas, and the Cholas.
Many of the original literature works of Sangam period is lost. The available literature from this period has been broadly divided in antiquity into three categories based roughly on chronology. These are: The Major Eighteen Anthology Series comprising the Ettuthokai (Eight Anthologies) and the Pattupattu (Ten Idylls) and the Five Great Epics. Tolkaappiyam, a commentary on grammar, phonetics, rhetoric, and poetics, is dated from this period.
These were composed in three successive poetic assemblies (Sangam) that were held in ancient times on a now vanished continent far to the south of India. It is believed that a significant amount of literature could have preceded Tolkappiyam, as grammar books are usually written after a literature has existed for a long period.
The poems of Sangam literature mostly are discussing two main topics: those of the first five collections are on love (akam), and those of the next two are on heroism (puram), including the praise of kings and their deeds. Paripatal, the eighth collection, contains poems of both types.
Post Sangam period works of Tamil literature
Later, at the end of Sangam period many great tamil epics were written including Cilappathikaram,Manimeghalai ,Civaka cintamani ,Valayapathi and Kundalakesi.
Manimegalai and Kundalakesi are Buddhist religious works. Civaka cintamani and Valayapathi are Tamil Jain works. Cilappathikaram does not implicate any religious views and it is written in monologue style of Sangam literature.
The ‘Tirukkuraḷ ‘written during this period is a collection of aphorisms depicts topics such as love, kingship, and ethics. It is a work that has had great influence on Tamil culture and life. It is usually attributed to the poet Tiruvalluvar , who is thought to have lived in the 6th century, though some scholars assign an earlier date (1st century bc).
The Tirukkural consists of 133 sections of 10 couplets each are divided into three books: aram (virtue), porul (government and society), and kamam (love). The first section opens with praise of God, rain, renunciation, and a life of virtue. It then presents a world-affirming vision, the wisdom of human sympathy that expands from one’s family and friends to one’s clan, village, and country. The porul section projects a vision of an ideal state and relates good citizenship to virtuous private life. The kamam section addresses both “secret love” and married love; the section on married love is written as a dialogue between husband and wife.
From the 6th to 12th century CE, the Tamil devotional poems written by Alvars (sages of Vaishnavism) and Nayanmars (sages of Shaivism) and, heralded the onset of great Bhakti movement which later spread to the whole Indian subcontinent.
In the post Sangam period the early epics and moral literature, authored by Vaishnavite, Shaivite, Ajivika; probably written by Jain and Buddhist authors and poets lasting up to the 5th century CE. Original scriptures of Ajivika seems to be lost .The Ajivika school of philosophy is known for its doctrine of fate or Niyati.That is the followers believed that every happenings of past,present and future are preordained and a function of cosmic principles. This philosophy was prominent in Mauryan empire of Bindusara in the 4th century. It reached Tamil speaking areas in 14th century CE.
During the medieval era some of the grandest of Tamil literary classics like Kambaramayanam and Periya Puranam were authored and many poets were patronized by the imperial Chola and Pandya empires.
The later medieval period saw many assorted minor literary works and also contributions by a few Muslim and European authors.
