Category: Heritage

  • Monuments of Mahabalipuram

    Mahabalipuram is a famous heritage town  listed under UNESCO world heritage sites and it is enriched with  rock-cut cave temples, monolithic temples, bas-relief sculptures, and structural temples as well as the excavated remains of temples of Pallava architectural style.

     Mahabalipuram (or Mamallapuram), located along southeastern India’s Coromandel Coast has a group of monuments built by the Pallava dynasty during 6th-9th centuries.  The majestic edifices portray the dexterity of the Pallava craftsmen in carving temples and sculptures.

    The site is well known for its 40 ancient monuments and Hindu temples, including one of the largest open-air rock reliefs in the world: the Descent of the Ganges or Arjuna’s Penance.

      Other acclaimed Pallava monuments include Ratha temples with monolithic processional chariots, built between 630 and 668; mandapa viharas (cave temples) with narratives from the Mahabharata and Shaivite, Shakti or Shaaktha and Vaishnava inscriptions in a number of Indian languages and scripts; rock reliefs (particularly bas-reliefs); stone-cut temples built between 695 and 722.

     This heritage site is restored after 1960 and now protected by the Archaeological Survey of India.

    Location

    The Mahabalipuram temples are located in the southeastern Indian state of Tamil Nadu, about 60 kilometres southwest of Chennai on the Coromandel Coast.

      The origin of Mamallapuram- The city of Pallava dynasty

     Mahabalipuram is also known by the name Mamallapuram;  Mamalla means “Great Wrestler”, and refers to the 7th-century king of Pallava dynasty  Narasimha Varman I.

      The town is mentioned in history in various other names including Mamallapattana, Mavalipuram, Mavalivaram, Mavellipore, Mauvellipooram and Mahabalipur, all of which refer to a “great wrestler city” or “city of Mahabali”.  Mabalipuram is also linked with the legend of is Mahabali, the demon king defeated by Vamana (an incarnation of Lord Vishnu).

     Indian monuments and landforms are intricately linked with the vastness of its mythology and this sacred linking is not uncommon throughout the subcontinent. In the ancient monuments of Mahabalipuram the  sculptures, cave temples and inscriptions are connected to history  as well as mythology, particularly Mahabharata epic.

      There is another story linking this heritage city with prosperity and growth as the Tamil word “mallal” means prosperity.  It refers to the prosperity and economic growth  of this city of Pallavas during 6th and 7th centuries.

     It is curious to find that an 8th-century Tamil text by the early Bhakti movement poet Thirumangai Alvar, where Mamallapuram is called “Kadal Mallai” supporting this claim of Nagaswamy.

    Most of the ancient texts , including seventh-century inscriptions refer this town of Palavas as “Mamallapuram” or its close variants. The name “Mahabalipuram” appears only after the 16th century  as per records.

    The town was also mentioned in colonial-era literature as “Seven Pagodas” by European sailors who landed on the coast and found the towers of seven Hindu temples built by Pallavas.

     Marco Polo (1271-1295 CE)  also has mentioned about “Seven Pagodas” and the name became associated with the shore temples of Mahabalipuram in publications by European merchants centuries later. However, currently Mahabalipuram monuments own fewer than seven towers, the name “ seven pagodas” has inspired speculation and debate.

       Mahabalipuram monuments- Recent archeological findings

    In December 2004 Asian tsunami, generated by an earthquake in Indian ocean 160km away from Sumatra island as its epicentre [Indonesa] had a devastating impact on the shores of Tamilnadu also. In many places across the world, there was receding sea water exposing oceanic bed before the occurrence of towering tsunami wave. The tsunami had briefly exposed the beachfront near Saluvankuppam (now north of Mahabalipuram), revealing inscriptions and structures. According to a BBC report that these inscriptions dated back to 9th century and they might have been destroyed later by a 13th-century tsunami.

     The tsunami also revealed large structures on the seabed about a kilometre offshore.  About this site archaeologists opined that it might be the ancient Mahabalipuram. According to a Science article, the tsunami exposed rocks with elaborately sculpted head of an elephant and a horse in flight. Other artefacts exposed were a small niche with a statue of a deity, another rock with a reclining lion, and other Hindu religious iconography.

    In Mahabalipuram group monuments Shore temple is prominent ancient monument close to the beach area. Marine archaeologists and underwater diving teams have explored a site east of the Shore Temple after the 2004 tsunami. This has revealed ruins of fallen walls, a large number of rectangular blocks and other structures parallel to the shore, and the forty surviving monuments.

    Pallava rule & emergence of Mamallapuram

      Mamallapuram became prominent during the Pallava-era reign of Simhavishnu during the late 6th century. During his reign there was great friction with Pandyas and Cheras.

    The monuments of Mahabalipuram are a fusion of religion, culture and legend relating to the Hindu religious pantheon. The monuments depict many 7th- and 8th-century Sanskrit inscriptions and also unravel the  medieval South Indian history, culture, reign and religion. 

       Mamallapuram’s architecture is linked to Simhavishnu’s son, Mahendravarman I (600-630 CE), who was a patron of the arts. Mahendravarman’s son, Narsimha Varman I, continued the work of this city architecture . After a brief hiatus, temple and monument construction was revived during the reign of Rajasimha (or Narasimhavarman II; 690–728).

    The site has about forty monuments, including monolithic temples, cave temples , sculptures ,rock reliefs etc.

     Types of monuments in Mahabalipuram

    • Rathas: chariot-shaped temples
    • Mandapas: Cave temples
    • Rock reliefs
    • Structural temples
    • Excavations

    There are ten major rathas, ten mandapas, two rock bas-reliefs and three structural temples.

    The monuments portray Hindu mythology gods and goddesses. The reliefs, sculptures and architecture incorporate Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism.

    Ratha temples

    The ratha temples are carved in the shape of chariots in blocks of diorite and granite in sand, carving legends in stone.

    They include five monolithic structures projecting above the beach, known as the Five Rathas or the Pandava Rathas.

     They are temples with chariot carvings dedicated to deities and concepts of the Shaivi, (Shiva), Vaishnavi (Vishnu) and Shakti (Durga) traditions of Hinduism. These temples are dated to the 7th century.

    Cave temples

    Mandapas also refer to rock-cut cave temples or shrines, built according to the same concept, and Mamallapuram has many mandapas dated to the 7th and 8th centuries. Cave temples of Mahabalipuram have three entrances

    Trimurti cave in northern Mamallapuram

    Temple entrance with lingam

    Shiva shrine

    Temple entrance, with bas-reliefs on interior wall

    Vishnu shrine

    Mandapa is a Sanskrit term for a typically square vestibule, pillared hall or pavilion.

     It was a space for gathering for rituals for the people. Cells or sanctums would often be included, creating a vihara.

    The noteworthy feature of cave temples is that they are in incomplete form, and therefore provides much information about how cave monuments were excavated and built in 7th-century. The process of producing rock-cut cave temples influenced later structural Hindu temples.

     Segments of the caves indicate that artisans worked with architects to mark off the colonnade, cutting deep grooves into the rock to create rough-hewn protuberances with margins. The hanging rocks were then cut off, and they repeated the process. After the excavation, other artisans moved in to polish the rocks and begin the creation of designs, motifs, friezes and Hindu iconography.

    Varaha cave temple

    The Varaha cave was excavated from a vertical wall on the west face of the main Mamallapuram hill. it is known for its four sculptures depicting Hindu legends: the Vamana-Trivikrama legend, the Varaha legend, the Durga legend and the Gajalakshmi legend and dated back to the 7th century.

    Kotikal cave temple

    It is a simple, early excavation with two pilasters on its facade.  Inside the Kotikal cave temple are an oblong ardha-mandapa (half or partial hall) and a square sanctum (garbha griya). The front of the sanctum has mouldings and features similar to a free-standing temple. The sanctum door is flanked by female dvarapalas (sculptures guarding the door) on each side.

    The female guardians on the sanctum door suggest that the deity in the sanctum was probably Durga, the Hindu goddess.

    One pillar has an inscription in the Grantha alphabet which transliterates as “Sri Vamankusa”. It is believed that the temple was built by a patron (according to Ramaswami, possibly Telugu). The temple dates back to the early Mahendra period.

    Dharmaraja cave temple

    The Dharmaraja cave temple, also known as the Atyantakama cave temple, is on the south side of Mamallapuram hill near the Mahishamardini cave.

    The temple has a fourteen-line Sanskrit inscription in the Grantha alphabet with an epithet. The cave is probably built during the reign of King Rajasimha (late 7th or early 8th century), but  other archeologists date it to the 7th-century King Paramesvara-varman .A few other scholars assign it to the Mahendra period, based on its style.

    Ramanuja cave temple

    One of the most sophisticated and complete cave temples, excavated in the center of the main Mamallapuram hill, on its eastern scarp.

    The Ramanuja cave consists of a rectangular ardha-mandapa, marked with a row of pillars. At the side of its facade are two model vimanas with a square rock platform. On the floor between the two pillars of the facade is a Sanskrit inscription in the Grantha alphabet praising Rudra, evidence that the temple was originally associated with Shaivism. The inscription’s florid font and epithets date it to the 7th century and Parameshvara Varman.

    The temple was partially renovated centuries after its construction into a shrine for the Vaishnava scholar, Ramanuja. The later artisans added the six crudely-cut, free-standing pillars in front, probably to extend the mandapa.

    Koneri mandapa

    The Koneri temple is dedicated to Shiva and it is carved into the western side of the main hill in Mamallapuram. The temple has two rows of four pillars and two pilasters. The front row is considerably simpler than the row near the shrines, which is intricately carved.

    Krishna mandapa

    The Krishna mandapa is a sophisticated cave, built in 7th century, with large panels depicting Hindu mythology and the culture, situated near the Descent of the Ganges bas-relief.  The walls of the pillared hall depict village life woven into the story of Krishna. Krishna holds Goverdhana Mountain, under which are people, cattle and other animals, in one section.

    Atiranachanda cave temple

    This 7th-century built cave temple is in the village of Saluvankuppam, north of Mamallapuram. It has a small facade, with two octagonal pillars with square sadurams (bases) and two four-sided pilasters. Behind the facade is an ardha-mandapa and a small, square sanctum. In front of the facade are empty mortise holes, probably later additions to a now-missing mandapa.

    The sanctum entrance has two Shaiva dvarapalas. Inside is a later black, polished, 16-sided, tantra-style Shiva linga.

    Adivaraha cave temple

    The Adivaraha cave temple is built in 7th century and it is also known as the Maha Varaha Vishnu temple. It is known for sculptures relating the Hindu legends about Varaha (Vaishnavism), Durga (Shaktism), Gangadhara (Shaivism), Harihara (Vaishnavism-Shaivism fusion) and Gajalakshmi (Vaishnavism).

    The temple is at the northern end of the main Mamallapuram hill, on its western side.

    This temple is opened only during times of pooja in the morning and evening.

    The temple is dedicated to Varaha incarnation of god Vishnu. In the panel  inside temple Shiva is represented as Ganga dhara which is a Pallava style of temple architecture.

    Mahishasuramardini cave temple

    The Mahishasuramardini cave, also known as the Mahishamardini mandapa, is found at the southern end of the site (known locally as Yamapuri). Excavated on the eastern scarp of a boulder on the main Mamallapuram hill, above it are the ruins of the Olakkannesvara temple. According to Ramaswami, the temple is unfinished but what has been carved represents the ultimate in Tamil temple rock art. The cave has many panels, and their narrative follows the Markandeya Purana.

    Panchapandava mandapam

    Just south of the Arjuna’s Penance bas-relief is the Panchapandava mandapam, the largest (unfinished) cave temple excavated in Mamallapuram.

     It has six pillars, one of which has been restored, and two pilasters as its facade. Another row of pillars follows in the ardhamandapa, and largely-unfinished, deep side halls also contain pillars. Evidence of work in progress suggests that the cave was intended to have a walking path and large wall reliefs.

    Other mandapas

    The Mamallapuram site includes a number of other unfinished cave temples. Among them are the Trimurti temple, dedicated to Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu.

     Pulipudar and adjacent cave temples near the Konerippallam tank and the Tiger Cave, also known as the Yali mandapa, dedicated to Lakshmi (the goddess of prosperity.

    Structural temples

    The structural (free-standing) temples at Mamallapuram have been built with cut stones as building blocks, rather than carved into a rock (cave temples) or out of a rock (ratha temples).

     They  represent a different stage, style and sophistication than the other monuments, are some of best examples of early medieval Tamil Hindu-temple architecture These temples are  dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu and Durga, although more Shiva iconography has survived over time.

    Shore Temple of Mahabalipuram

    The Shore Temple complex is near the Mamallapuram shore. It consists of a large temple, two smaller temples and many minor shrines, open halls, gateways, and other elements, much of which is buried by sand.

     The main temple is within a two-tier, compound wall with statues of Shiva’s vahana (vehicle), Nandi, surrounding it. The 60-foot (18 m)-high temple has a 50-square-foot (4.6 m2) plan. It is a stepped pyramidal tower, arranged in five tiers with Shiva iconography.

    The temple includes a path around its main sanctum and a large, barrel vaulted roof above its doorway. Pilasters on the outer wall divide it into bays.

    A small temple in the original forecourt of the larger temple. The other two temples in the complex are behind the main temple, face each other and are known as the Rajasimhesvara (or Nripatisimha Pallava Vishnugriha) and the Kshatriyasimhesvara.

    The main shrine has Vishnu and Durga images. The rear temple walls are carved with Somaskanda bas-relief panels depicting Shiva, Parvati and the infant Skanda.

    Most of its Nandi sculptures were in ruins and scattered around the main temple complex. Twentieth-century restoration efforts replaced them in accordance with the inscriptions, descriptions of the temple in medieval texts and excavations of layers which confirmed that Nandi bulls were seated along its periphery.

    The Shiva temples of the complex have been dated to the early 8th century and are attributed to the reign of the Pallava king Rajasimha (700-728). The Vishnu temple, with an image of a reclining Vishnu discovered after excavations, has been dated to the 7th century.

    Olakkanesvara temple

    The Olakkanesvara temple is situated on the rock above the Mahishamardini cave temple. It is also known as the Old Lighthouse because of its conversion by British officials. The temple is built by King Rajasimha ,in the early 8th century from grey granite cut into blocks.

     This temple is in dilapidated condition and its superstructure is missing; what remains is a square building with its west entrance flanked by dvarapalas. The walls of the temple depict the Ravananugraha legend from the Ramayana and a relief of Dakshinamurti (Shiva as a yoga teacher). Its name is modern, based on the “ollock of oil” per day which was burnt by local residents to keep the temple flame lit.

    Mukundanayanar temple

    The Mukundanayanar temple has ratha-like architecture. North of the main hill in Mamallapuram, it has been dated to the early 8th century and attributed to King Rajasimha.

    Rock reliefs

    Reliefs are carved on rocks or boulders. These include the wall of the Krishna mandapa, where a superstructure was added in front of the relief.

    The best-known rock relief in Mahablipuram is the Descent of the Ganges (also known as Arjuna’s Penance or Bhagiratha’s Penance), the largest open-air rock relief.

    The Descent of the Ganges is considered one of the largest bas-relief works in the world. The relief, consisting of Hindu mythology, is carved on two 27-metre-long (89 ft), 9-metre-high (30 ft) boulders.

    Inscriptions near the panel with the light house in the background

    There are two primary interpretations regarding this descent of ganges.

     The first one is the effort needed to bring the Ganges from the heavens to earth, and the Kiratarjuniya legend and the chapter from the Mahabharata about Arjuna’s efforts to gain the weapon he needed to help good triumph over evil. A portion of the panel shows the help he received from Shiva to defeat the Asuras. Included in the panel are Vishnu, Shiva, other gods and goddesses, sages, human beings, animals, reptiles and birds.

    According to another interpretation, an ascetic Bhagiratha is praying for the Ganges to be brought to earth. Shiva receives the river, to which all life is racing in peace and thirst. This myth has not been universally accepted as central characters are missing or are inconsistent with their legends. The absence of a boar from the entire panel makes it doubtful that it is single story.

     However, scenes of Arjuna’s penance and the descent of the Ganges are affirmed.

     The granite reliefs, from the early or middle 7th century, are considered by The Hindu as “one of the marvels of the sculptural art of India.

    written by dr sanjana p souparnika

    References

  • Hampi- UNESCO World heritage site

    Group of Monuments at Hampi, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site located in the town of Hampi in Vijayanagara district, east-central Karnataka, India. Hampi is one of the most sought-after heritage tourism destinations in India, renowned for its architectural and archeological significance.

    A glimpse into the lost glory of Hampi

     Hampi   group of monuments include Hindu, Buddhist and Jainist temples depicting a mélange of tradition and culture. This ancient heritage city was the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire which ruled this part of Karnataka from 1336 to 1565.Later it faded into oblivion with Muslim invasion of the empire.

    This ancient city of glorified Vijayanagra empire remained in total neglect until the mid-19th century, when Alexander Greenlaw visited here and photographed the site in 1856. However, these photographs remained hidden from public domain for decades in the United Kingdom, till it published in 1982. Greenlow had created an archive of 60 calotype photographs of temples and royal structures of that period which unravel the great historical and cultural significance and the most invaluable source of evidence of the mid-19th-century Hampi.

    Location

     The present day Hampi is a small modern town with the city of Hosapete only13 kilometres (8.1 miles) away from it , in Karnataka state, India. It is situated on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in the eastern part of central Karnataka.

    It is situated 140 kilometres  southeast of the world famous Badami and Aihole archaeological sites of Karnataka.

    The ruins of a sleeping empire -Vijayanagara

    Hampi with its innumerable relics and artefacts unfolds the story of dynasties ruled over this region for centuries. Hampi was the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire which ruled this part of Karnataka from 1336 to 1565. Later Vijayanagara Empire was vanguished by a coalition of Muslim sultanates in 1565, and post that Hampi faded into oblivion for several decades.

       This ancient heritage town with its majestic relics are spread over 4,100 hectares. UNESCO has described this heritage town as an “austere, grandiose site” of more than 1,600 surviving remains of the last great Hindu kingdom in South India.

    Hampi group of monuments includes forts, riverside features, royal and sacred complexes, temples, shrines, pillared halls, mandapas, memorial structures, water structures etc.

    Hampi- the centre of overseas trade:

    Hampi was a major centre of trade at the time of Vijayanagar Empire, attracting traders from Persia and Portugal mostly. Foreign traders found it as a safe haeven to trade and become immensely wealthy. During 1500 CE Hampi was the world’s second-largest medieval-era city after Beijing.  It was one of the wealthiest cities of Indian subcontinent which fascinated many 16th-century traders from across the Deccan area, Persia and the Portuguese colony of Goa.

    Hampi – the cradle of arts and infrastructure development

     The Vijayanagara rulers fostered developments and they were also lovers of various art forms. The dynasty focused on developing roads, waterworks, agriculture, religious buildings and public infrastructure. According to the accounts of UNESCO, Vijayanagara empire had many forts, riverside features, royal and sacred complexes, temples, shrines, pillared halls, mandapas (halls for people to sit), memorial structures, gateways, check posts, stables, water structures, and more . Being a mighty empire Vijayanagara maintained a strong military and fought many wars with sultanates to its north and east.

    The centuries old city was multi-religious and multi-ethnic;  Still the ruins and vestiges show Hindu and Jain monuments next to each other.

    The buildings predominantly followed South Indian Hindu arts and architecture dating to the Aihole-Pattadakal styles, but the Hampi builders also used elements of Indian architecture in the Lotus Mahal, the public bath and the elephant stables.

    The monuments at this site probably might have been built in colours rather than the sandstone tint visible in the current era.

    global sinificance of Hampi through texts& scripts

    The V ijayanagra empire has been mentioned in many foreign texts and documents and it adds to the global significance of Hampi.

    Robert Sewell published his scholarly treatise A Forgotten Empire in 1900, which brought into light the ancient glory of this empire of Vijayanagra dynasty.

       Alexander Rea, an officer of the Archaeological Survey department of the Madras Presidency within British India, published his survey of the site in 1885.

    The growing interest led Rea and his successor Longhurst to clear and repair the Hampi group of monuments.

    According to the Hoysala-period inscriptions Hampi was known by alternate names such as Virupakshapattana, Vijaya Virupakshapura in honour of the old Virupaksha (Shiva) temple there.

    The site is significant historically and archaeologically, for the Vijayanagara period  and  the previous period of sleeping history. The Archaeological Survey of India continues to conduct excavations in the area to unravel the mysterious past of this wonderful town.

    Sacred links of myth surrounding the name’ Hampi‘

    According to Sthala Purana, Parvati (Pampa) pursued her ascetic, yogini lifestyle on Hemakuta Hill, now a part of Hampi, to win and bring ascetic Shiva back into householder life. Shiva is also called Pampapati as the husband of pampa or goddess Parvati. The river near the Hemakuta Hill came to be known as Pampa river.  As in many other parts of Indiian subcontinent here also the sacred linking of geographical regions is evident. The Sanskrit word Pampa morphed into the Kannada word Hampa and the place Parvati pursued Shiva came to be known as Hampe or Hampi.

    Rising up of Vijayanagara empire from the ashes of pampapura

      The heritage town has several less known historical and mythological stories connected to the entire subcontinent. The excavations in Hampi connects it with Maurya empire .Emperor Ashoka , the great Mauryan ruler is closely linked with Hampi according to Rock Edicts in Nittur and Udegola [ in Bellary district ]269-232 BCE. The rock engravings suggest that this region was part of the Maurya Empire during the 3rd century BCE. A Brahmi inscription and a terracotta seal dating to about the 2nd century CE also have been found during site excavations to corroborate the facts.

    The town Hampi is mentioned in Badami Chalukya’s inscriptions as Pampapura, dating from between the 6th and 8th centuries. By the 10th century,  pamapapura had become a centre of religious and educational activities under the reign of Chalukya empire. Kalyana Chalukyas ruled this area and the inscriptions of the century state that the kings made land grants to the Virupaksha temple.

     Several inscriptions from the 11th to 13th centuries are about the Hampi site, with a mention of gifts to goddess Hampa-devi. Between the 12th and 14th centuries, Hindu kings of theHoysala Empire of South India built temples to Durga, Hampadevi and Shiva, according to an inscription dated about 1,199 CE. Hampi became the second royal residence; one of the Hoysala kings was known as Hampeya-Odeya or “lord of Hampi”.The Hoysala Empire and its capital Dvarasamudra in southern Karnataka was plundered and destroyed in the early 14th century by the armies of Alauddin Khalji.

    The Kampili kingdom in north-central Karnataka followed the collapse of Hoysala Empire. The Kampili kingdom ended after an invasion by the Muslim armies of Muhammad bin Tughlaq. In 14th century Muslim rulers of the Delhi Sultanate, Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad bin Tughlaq, invaded and plundered South India.

    In 1326 CE the army of Muhammad bin Tughlaq destroyed the kingdom mercilessly.The Hindu women of Kampili committed jauhar (ritual mass suicide) when the Kampili soldiers faced defeat by Tughlaq’s army.

     In 1336 CE, the Vijayanagara Empire arose from the ruins of the Kampili kingdom. It grew into one of the famed Hindu empires of South India that ruled for over 200 years.The Vijayanagara Empire built its capital around Hampi, calling it Vijayanagara.

    Historians suggests that Harihara I and Bukka I, the founders of the empire, were commanders in the army of the Hoysala Empire stationed in the Tungabhadra region to ward off Muslim invasions from the Northern India. Another story  proposed is that these people were Telugu people, who took control of the northern parts of the Hoysala Empire during its decline. As per texts such as Vidyaranya Kalajana, Vidyaranya Vritanta, Rajakalanirnaya, Pitamahasamhita, Sivatatvaratnakara, they were treasury officers of Pratap Rudra, the King of Kakatiya Kingdom.

    The origin of Viaya nagara empire stems from the story of invasion by Muhammad Bin Tughlaq who came looking for Baha-Ud-Din Gurshasp (who was taking refuge in the court of Pratap Rudra). In that battle Pratap Rudra was overthrown and Kakatiya was vanguished. It was during this period of time the two brothers Harihara I and Bukka I, with a small army came to the present site of Vijayanagara, Hampi.It was a crucial moment in history when Vidyaranya, the 12th Jagadguru of Sringeri  took them under his protection and established them on the throne and the city was called Vidyanagara in A.D. 1336.Later from here vijayanagra emerged as a far-flung empire.

    Decline of vijayanagara empire

    In 1565, at the Battle of Talikota, a coalition of Muslim sultanates attacked the Vijayanagara Empire.  They captured and beheaded the king Aliya Rama Raya, followed by a massive destruction of the infrastructure fabric of Hampi and the metropolitan Vijayanagara. The city was pillaged, plundered and burnt for six months after the war, then abandoned as ruins, which are now called the Group of Monuments at Hampi. Perhaps the burnt dilapidated Hampi is yet another example for the inglorious and ignominious religious fanaticism of Muslim rulers who destroyed Indian cultural history into ashes.

    Majestic monuments of Hampi

    Most of the monuments of Hampi were built between 1336 and 1570 CE during the reign of Vijayanagara empire. The site has about 1,600 monuments and covers 41.5 square kilometres .

    The Hampi site has been studied by hisorians in three broad zones such as :

    • sacred centre
    • urban core or the royal centre
    • metropolitan Vijayanagara.

    The sacred centre, alongside the river, contains the oldest temples with a history of pilgrimage and monuments pre-dating the Vijayanagara empire.

     The urban core and royal centre have over sixty ruined temples beyond those in the sacred centre, but the temples in the urban core are all dated to the Vijayanagara empire. The urban core also includes public utility infrastructure such as roads, an aqueduct, water tanks, mandapa, gateways and markets, monasteries. This distinction has been assisted by some seventy-seven stone inscriptions.

    Most of the monuments of Hampi are depicting Hindu temple architecture and the public infrastructure such as tanks and markets include reliefs and artwork depicting Hindu deities and themes from Hindu texts.

     There are also six Jain temples and monuments and a Muslim mosque and tomb in Hampi.

     The architectural style of monuments of Hampi is Dravidian, rooted in Hindu arts and architecture of [the second half of the 1st millennium] the Deccan region. It also included elements of the arts that developed during the Hoysala rule of the empire  between the 11th and 14th century such as in the pillars of Ramachandra temple and ceilings of some of the Virupaksha temple complex.

    Major temple monuments of Hampi

    • Virupaksha temple complex

    The Virupaksha temple is the oldest Hindu shrine, the main destination for pilgrims and tourists. It includes parts of the Shiva, Pampa and Durga temples existed in the 11th-century; it was extended during the Vijayanagara era. The temple is a collection of smaller temples.

    According to local tradition, the Virupaksha is the only Hindu temple that continued to be a gathering place of Hindus and visited by pilgrims after the destruction of Hampi in 1565. The temple attracts large crowd during the annual festivals, with a chariot procession to mark the marriage of Virupaksha and Pampa [ Shiva &Parvati] is held in spring, as is the solemn festival of Maha Shivaratri.

    • Krishna temple

    This temple is also called Balakrishna temple, situated on the other side of Hemakuta hill, is about 1 kilometre  south of Virupaksha temple. It is dated back to 1515 CE.

    The temple faces to the east; it has a gateway with reliefs of all ten avatars of Vishnu starting with Matsya at the bottom. Inside the ruined temple for Krishna ruined shrines for goddesses are also found.

    South of the Krishna temple’s exterior are two adjacent shrines, one containing the largest monolithic Shiva Linga and the other with the largest monolithic Yoga-Narasimha avatar of Vishnu in Hampi.

    • Achyutaraya temple

    The Achyutaraya temple, also called the Tiruvengalanatha temple, is about 1 kilometre  east of Virupaksha temple and close to Tungabhadra River. It is referred to be in Achyutapura in inscriptions and is dated to 1534 CE. It is one of the four largest complexes in Hampi.

    •  Vitthala temple

    It is over 3 kilometres (1.9 miles) north-east of the Virupaksha temple near the banks of the Tungabhadra River. It is an artistically sophisticated Hindu temple in Hampi, and is part of the sacred centre of Vijayanagara.

    • Hemakuta hill temples & inscriptions

    The Hemakuta hill lies between the Virupaksha temple complex to the north and the Krishna temple to the south. It has monuments that are preserved examples of pre-Vijayanagara and early-Vijayanagara temples and constructions.

    The site has several important inscriptions. The hill has more than thirty small-to-moderate-sized temples, together with water cisterns, gateways, and secular pavilions.

    • The Hazara Rama temple

    This temple is also referred to as the Ramachandra temple in inscriptions, occupied the western part of the urban core in the royal centre section of Hampi. This temple was dedicated to Rama of the Ramayana.The inner walls of the temple has friezes containing extensive narration of the Hindu epic Ramayana

    • Kodandarama temple and riverside monuments

    The Kodandarama temple complex lies near the Tungabhadra River, and is north of Achyutaraya temple. The temple overlooks Chakratirtha, where the Tungabhadra turns northwards towards the Himalayas. The river banks has a Vijayanagara-era ghat and mandapa facilities for bathing. There  is a dipa stambha (lighting pillar) in front of the temple under a Pipal tree, and inside the temple there is a sanctum dedicated to Rama, Sita, Lakshmana and Hanuman.

    • Pattabhirama temple complex

    This temple complex is in the southern suburban centre outside the sacred centre and the urban core, about 500 metres  from the ASI Hampi museum. It seems to be built in the early 16th century and dedicated to Rama  of Ramayana[ Incarnation of Lord Vishnu].It was at the nucleus of economic and cultural activity of this suburb, now located north-east of Kamalapura. The complex, also known as Varadevi Ammana Pattana.

    • Mahanavami platform

    This monument, is within a 7.5-hectare (19-acre) enclosure at one of the highest points inside the royal centre (urban core).  It is mentioned in the memoirs of foreigners who visited Vijayanagara and is referred as “House of Victory”.

     The largest monument in this complex has three ascending square stages leading to a large, square platform that likely had a wooden mandapa above it. This was burnt down during the destruction of Hampi.

    It has reliefs—possibly a catalogue of 14th-century royal activities—and lines of marching animals including elephants, horses and camels.

     Reliefs on the south side show musicians and dancers, including female stick-dancers. The third level reliefs show a battle procession, couples and scenes of common citizens celebrating Holi (Vasantotsava) by throwing water at each other.

    • The Square Water Pavilion, also called the Queen’s Bath, is in the south-east of the royal centre. It has a pavilion, a water basin and a method of moving fresh water to it and taking away wash water and overflows. The basin is enclosed within an ornate, pillared, vaulted bay. The building’s interior arches show influence from Indo-Islamic architecture, reflecting an era in which Hindu and Muslim arts influenced each other in India

    The Hampi monuments include aqueducts to carry water to tanks and other parts of the city, as well as drains and channels to remove water overflow.

    Several major temples in Hampi have an embedded kitchen and 100-or-more-pillared feeding halls.

    Hampi also had a dedicated public Bhojana shala (house of food) where numerous thali (dish) were carved in series in a rock on both sides of a water channel.

    • Lotus mahal

    The Lotus Mahal is a two-storeyed pavilion in the royal centre. The Lotus Mahal combines a symmetrical, square, Hindu mandala design with lobed arches, vaults, and domes of the Indo-Islamic style. Its basement and pyramidal towers are based on Hindu temple architecture.

    Like almost all of the structures in Hampi’s royal centre, this monument has no inscriptions nor epigraphs mentioning its origin.

    The Lotus Mahal and other structures in the Hampi urban core, however, were not built with Muslim patronage.

    These buildings reflect the assimilative approach of the Vijayanagara Hindu rulers. Lotus Mahal looks like a syncretic, congested space and its purpose is unclear. Speculations include it being a council hall.

    Hindu temple vestiges in Hampi

    The Hampi site has more than 1,600 surviving ruins mostly of Hindu temples spread over a wide area.

    Significant monuments include a temple near the octagonal bath for Saraswati, a Hindu goddess of knowledge and music.

    temple in the suburbs for Ananthasayana Vishnu.

    an Uddana Virbhadra temple for Shiva and Vishnu

    a shrine for Kali, the fierce form of Durga unusually shown holding a ball of rice and a ladle (Annapurna).

    an underground temple in the royal centre; a Sugriva cave temple.

    the Matanga hill monuments; the Purandaradasa temple dedicated to the scholar-musician famed for the Carnatic music tradition.

    the Chandrashekhara temple for Shiva near the Queen’s bath monument

    the Malyavanta hill dedicated to Rama-Sita-Lakshmana and Shiva. The Malyavanta hill features several shrines including the Raghunatha temple and a row of Shiva lingas carved in stone.

    Jain monuments at Hampi

    Reliefs of Jain temples at Hampi include Hemkut Jain temples, Ratnantraykut, Parsvanath Charan and Ganagitti Jain temples. Most of the idols are now missing from these temples, which were built in the 14th century.

    Ganagitti temple complex

     Hampi monuments attract millions of tourists every year to Karnataka from various parts of the globe. The monuments tell the story of many dynasties and the multi ethnic societies lived in this land. It stands as an integral part of the history of Indian subcontinent which tells numerous tales of conquests, expansion and widening of frontiers by various Northern dynasties and invasion by foreign Muslim rulers.

    The Indo-Islamic style is visible in a few monuments, such as the Queen’s bath  and Elephant stables.  UNESCO  has commented that it reflects a highly evolved multi-religious and multi-ethnic society.

    The Ganigitti Jain temple is near Bhima’s gate in the south-east of the urban core section of Hampi. In front of it is a monolithic lamp pillar. The temple faced north; it is dated to 1385 CE, during the rule of Hindu king Harihara II, based on an inscription in the temple. It is dedicated to Tirthankara Kunthunatha and has plain walls, a pillared mandapa and a square sanctum from which the Jina’s statue is missing.

    A cluster of Jain 150 meters east of the elephant stables. One north-facing temple is dedicated to Parshvanatha Tirthankara. It was built by King Devaraya II and dates to 1426 CE, per an inscription in the temple. In front of the temple are two ruined temples

    Muslim monument at Hampi

    The Hampi site includes a Muslim quarter with Islamic tombs, two mosques and a cemetery. These are neither in the sacred centre nor in the royal centre of the Hampi site.

    There is a Muslim monument in the south-east of the urban core on the road from Kamalapura to Anegondi, before Turuttu canal in the irrigated valley. This monument was first built in 1439 by Ahmad Khan, a Muslim officer in the army of Hindu king Devaraya II. The monuments include a mosque, an octagonal well, and a tomb. The mosque lacks a dome and is a pillared pavilion, while the tomb has a dome and arches.

    How to reach Hampi ?

    The nearest airport to Hampi, Bellary is 60 km away from Hampi.

    Hubli Airport is another Airport which is 143 km away from Hampi.

     Also, JSW Vidyanagar Airport in Toranagallu is located approximately 40 kms from Hampi.

    However, if you are a foreigner visiting the places you need to step down at Bengaluru Airport to get Visa on Arrival. You can book domestic flight tickets from Bengaluru to Bellary or Hubli to reach Hampi without any delay.

    By road :

    To reach Hampi you can choose buses or cabs.

    Bangalore to Hampi           343 km          6 hours 2 mins        

    Many buses are available to Hosapete town, Hospet has great road connectivity from Bangalore[ state- Karnataka]  and  Mumbai,Pune&Kolhapur[ state-Maharashtra].

    By train:

    People from other states of India may reach Hampi by booking tickets to Hosapete Junction (Hospet) railway station (railway station code: HPT).

     Hampi is 13km from the railway station.

    written by dr sanjana p souparnika

    References

  •  Bhagoriya festival – Vibrant expression of tribal culture , Madhyapradesh

     Bhagoriya festival is a harvest festival celebrated by tribal people in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra, a unique celebration of the Bhil and other indigenous communities such as Bhilalas and Pateliyas.

    It is a festival of singing and dance which celebrates the arrival of Spring and harvest.  The tribal people start the celebrations  seven days before the festival of Holi.

     Bhagoriya is more than just a festivity, it’s a vibrant expression of tribal culture, unity which also has a sacred linking with divinity, according to the beliefs of tribal community.

    It is the tradition of the tribes of the hamlets here to honour Lord Shiva and his consort goddess Parvati. The name Bhagoriya is derived from “Bhav-Gauri”, another name for lord Shiva and goddess Parvati.

    Locations of bhagoriya celebration

    The festival takes place in the Barwani, Dhar, Alirajpur, Khargone and Jhabua districts of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. It is celebrated for seven days in the month of March before the Holi.

    Traditionally, the people of the tribes travel to the festival grounds with their families on decorated bullock carts to do shopping for the upcoming festival of Holi and dance to traditional musical instruments, sing songs in unison with the tribal people of different areas.

    The festival is the celebration of vibrant colours with music and dance in the ground of fair where men reach wearing dhoti, jhuladi, and a safa (turban), often accessorised with conventional weapons and a belt of bells around their waists. The tribal women appear in ghaghra and polki, adorned with dazzling  accessories of silver jewellery  from head to foot.

    History

    According to folklore  the festival is connected to a king who initiated  it for searching his missing daughter.  However, historians attribute the patronage of the festival to King Kasumar Damor.

    During the festival, the dancing tribes take Mahua liquor, a local brew enjoyed during the festivities. Groups from various villages arrive in processions, carrying traditional musical instruments such as the mandar, kund, brass plates, and flutes.

    The dance is a visual treat with the fascinating performance of tribes in silver ornaments , vibrant attires enriched with intricate body movements and expressions.

    The Bhagoriya Festival  fairs are a treasure trove of tribal life, featuring shops selling  tribal jewellery, artefacts, clothes, and indigenous items made by the tribal people.

     Food stalls are also organized to offer local delicacies across the festival ground.  The festival fair also comes alive with fun rides, including merry-go-rounds.

    Cultural organisations and NGOs have taken initiatives to document and promote Bhagoriya festivities.  DECU ISRO has worked with local artists to preserve the dance and its traditions.  Recently Madhya Pradesh ministry has stated that Bhagoriya festival is part of its cultural heritage.

    Indeed, tribal fests are to be revived & preserved for the posterity to understand the indigenous culture and tradition of this land in the decades yet to come.   These kinds of tribal fests of the subcontinent features our tangible & intangible heritage which can inspire the world forever.

    References

  • Maha kumbh mela 2025

    Kumbh Mela (the festival of the sacred Pitcher or pot ) is considered as the largest peaceful congregation of pilgrims on earth, and it includes the ritual of taking bathe or a holy dip in a sacred river.

     It is a huge spiritual event inviting global attention as a tradition interwoven with the rich cultural heritage of India since ancient times.The event is a religious and cultural spectacle which occurs once in 12 years attracting participants from around the globe to take a dip in the holy waters

     In 2025 Mahakumbhamela is happening in Prayagraj in India. The 45-day Maha Kumbh, happening after a gap of 144 years, will witness the participation of over 45 crore devotees, including nearly 15 lakh from foreign nations

      Kumbh Mela plays a central spiritual role in the country and the  event encapsulates the science of astronomy, astrology, spirituality, ritualistic traditions, and social and cultural customs and practices making this a culturally diverse festival. Knowledge and skills related to this tradition are transmitted through ancient religious manuscripts, oral traditions, historical travelogues and texts produced by eminent historians. However, the teacher-student relationship of the sadhus in the ashrams and akhadas remains the most important method of imparting and safeguarding knowledge and skills relating to Kumbh Mela.

    The ritualistic bath of kumbh mela

    The kumbh mela festival is connected with the ritual of the sacred bath or dip in Ganges River or its confluences. Devotees believe that by bathing in the holy Ganges, one is freed from sins liberating the person from the cycle of birth and death. This impart Kumbh mela a dimension of salvation or moksha along with the fervor and enthusiasm interwoven with the celebration of spirituality.

    The congregation of pilgrims attending Maha Kumbh mela includes ascetics, saints, sadhus, aspirants-kalpavasis and visitors from any part of the globe. It is believed that Kumbh mela is a festival which is celebrated in India since ancient times at periodic intervals as a celebration of holy bath and congregation for spiritual discussions and rituals, in various other names as Magh festival. Still it is a matter of debate while looking through the lens of history .

    Most pilgrims stay at the venue of Kumbh mela for a day or two, but some stay the entire month of Magh during the festival and live an austere life during the stay. They attend spiritual discourses, fast and pray over the month, and these Kumbh pilgrims are called kalpavasis

    Traditionally, the riverside events conducted at four major pilgrimage sites are recognized as the Kumbh Melas: Prayagraj (Ganges-Yamuna-Sarasvati rivers confluence), Haridwar (Ganges), Nashik-Trimbak (Godavari), and Ujjain (Shipra). It was asserted that, in 2022, after a 700-year break, Bansberia (Hooghly), hosted the pilgrimage again.

    Apart from the ritualistic dip in the waters, Kumbh mela is a festival of community commerce with numerous fairs, education, religious discourses by saints, mass gatherings of monks, and entertainment.

    Kumbh mela through the veil of myths

    Kumbh mela is a festival categorized under intangible cultural heritage by UNESCO. This congregation of pilgrims intricately is linked with the legend of Indian mythology.  Through the veil of myths and legends Kumbh mela has deeper connection with Hindu puranas and epics which describes the churning of the great ocean Palazhimanthan and from which many precious objects, animals and divine figurines emerged.

    However historian rejects this linking of Kumbhamela with the myth of “the great ocean churning” with the claim that  as none of the ancient or medieval era texts t mention the Samudra Manthana legend [ ocean churning] ever linked it to a “mela” or festival. Giorgio Bonazzoli, a scholar of Sanskrit Puranas, considers these myths as mere anachronistic explanations, an adaptation of early legends to a later practice by a “small circle of adherents” who have sought the roots of a highly popular pilgrimage and festival.

    Hindu mythology puranas and epics describes the emergence of a “Kumbha of amrita (nectar of immortality)” after the forces of good and evil churn the  great ocean of creation. The gods and demons fight over the possession of this amrit kumbh to attain immortality. In a later day extension to this myth ,the pot or amrit kumbh is spilt at four places, and that relates to the origin of the four Kumbha Melas. However this myth of “spilling” and associated Kumbh Mela celebration is not found in the earliest mentions of the original legend of Samudra Manthana (churning of the ocean) such as the Vedic era texts (pre-500 BCE).

    There is another story associated with Kumbh mela which is the more widely known version that narrates about the Mohini avtar or incarnation of Lord Vishnu to regain the pot from demons who stole it for a short interval from the gods. All these myths and legends impart the festival a divine dimension beyond its relevance as the periodical spiritual congregation .

     The  “Kumbha Mela “ word as such is not found in the ancient or medieval era texts, however many texts and verses mention about a bathing festival, the sacred junction of rivers Ganga, Yamuna and sacred Saraswati at Prayag, and pilgrimage to Prayag.

    History of origin of kumbh mela

    Kumbh mela , an ancient religious festival, the roots of which lies in obscurity since time immemorial. According to religious texts, it is believed that the festival began in the 8th-century  as a Hindu gathering initiated by Hindu philosopher and saint Adi Shankara for philosophical discussions and debates along with Hindu monasteries across the Indian subcontinent. However, historical literary evidence is lacking about these mass pilgrimages called “Kumbha Mela” prior to the 19th century.

      There is mention about Magha mela celebrated annually in various inscriptions and manuscripts with periodic huge gatherings of pilgrims at 6 0r 12 years and taking holy dip in sacred rivers.

    According to the author & professor of school of Humanities and Languages, Kama MacLean, Kumbh mela is rebranding and remobilization of the ancient Magha Mela as the modern era Kumbh Mela, particularly after the Indian Rebellion of 1857.She mentions about Kumbh mela in her book Pilgrimage and power and also in other articles.

    The first Kumbh Mela event was organized in 1870, under the supervision of British empire in the colonial era. The weeks over which the festival is observed cycle at each site approximately once every 12 years based on the Hindu luni-solar calendar and the relative astrological positions of Jupiter, the sun and the moon. The difference between Prayag and Haridwar festivals is about 6 years, and both feature a Maha (major) and Ardha (half) Kumbh Melas.

     The exact years for the celebration of Kumbh Melas at Ujjain and Nashik have been a topic of dispute in the 20th century. The Nashik and Ujjain festivals have been celebrated in the same year or one year apart typically about 3 years after the Prayagraj Kumbh Mela.

    There is mention about holy dip in Prayaga in many religious texts but the name “ kumbh mela “ is conspicuously absent. The earliest mention of Prayaga and the bathing pilgrimage is found in a supplement to the Rigveda.

    The holy bath in prayaga is also mentioned in the Pali canons of Buddhism. In section 1.7 of Majjhima Nikaya, Buddha states that bathing in Prayaga cannot wash away cruel and evil deeds, rather the virtuous one should be pure in heart and fair in action.

     The Indian epic Mahabharata mentions a bathing pilgrimage at Prayag as a means of atonement, penance for past mistakes and guilt.

     In Tirthayatra Parva of Mahabharata [means pilgrimage before the great war depicted in the epic] the epic states “the one who observes firm [ethical] vows, having bathed at Prayaga during Magha, becomes spotless and reaches heaven. Magha mentioned here is the Magha festival of ancient era.

     The Anushasana Parva of the epic [ the part of mahabharatha epic post war] also narrates about this bathing pilgrimage as “geographical tirtha” that must be combined with Manasa-tirtha (tirtha of the heart).

      There are a few other textual references to Prayaga and river-side festivals including the places where present-day Kumbh Melas are held. However, the exact age of the Kumbh Mela is still obscure and remain intertwined with myths and legends. Most of the texts mentioning Prayaga is referring to Magha festival. Nonetheless, no evidences corroborates that Magha is the primitive form of Kumbha mela.

     Historians probably take into account the 7th-century Buddhist Chinese traveller Xuanzang’s (Hiuen Tsang) mentioning about king Harsha and his capital of Prayag, which he states to be a sacred Hindu city with hundreds of “deva temples” and two Buddhist institutions. The ancient traveler also mentions the Hindu bathing rituals at the junction of the rivers. According to some scholars, this is the earliest surviving historical account of the Kumbh Mela, which took place in present-day Prayag in 644 CE.

    Some traditions believes that Kumbha Mela’s origin happened in the 8th CE as philosopher Shankara  called for a major Hindu gatherings for philosophical discussions and debates along with Hindu monasteries across the Indian subcontinent.

    According to James Mallinson, a scholar of Hindu yoga manuscripts and monastic institutions, bathing festivals at Prayag with large gatherings of pilgrims are attested since “at least the middle of the first millennium CE”. He also states that textual evidence exists for similar pilgrimage at other major sacred rivers since the medieval period.  He conclude that four of these pilgrim gatherings morphed under the name ” Kumbh Mela”  during the reign of  East India Company  which made a  deliberate move to control the war-prone monks  through this transformation. The imperial power of Britain also had an eye on  the lucrative tax and trade revenues at these Hindu pilgrimage festivals.

    The Ramcharitmanas, a 16th century text of Tulsidas also cite an annual Mela in Prayag .

    The Muslim historian’s Ain-i-Akbari (c. 1590 CE) The Persian text calls Prayag (spells it Priyag) the “king of shrines” for the Hindus, and mentions that it is considered particularly holy in the Hindu month of Magha.

    The late 16th-century Tabaqat-i-Akbari also describes explicitly of an annual bathing festival at Prayag Sangam where “various classes of Hindus came from all over the country to bathe in large numbers that the jungles and plains were unable to hold them”.

    The Kumbh Mela of Haridwar appears to be the original Kumbh Mela, since it is held according to the astrological sign “Kumbha” (Aquarius), and because there are several references to a 12-year cycle for it.

     The later Mughal Empire era texts that contain the term “Kumbha Mela” in Haridwar’s context include Khulasat-ut-Tawarikh (1695–1699 CE), and Chahar Gulshan (1759 CE).The Khulasat-ut-Tawarikh also mentions an annual bathing pilgrimage festival in Prayag, but it does not call it Kumbh.

     Both these Mughal era texts use the term “Kumbh Mela” to describe only Haridwar’s fair, mentioning a similar fair held in Prayag and Nashik. The Khulasat-ut-Tawarikh lists the following melas: an annual mela and a Kumbh Mela every 12 years at Haridwar; a mela held at Trimbak when Jupiter enters Leo (that is, once in 12 years); and an annual mela held at Prayag (in modern Prayagraj) in Magh.

    The Magh Mela of Prayag is probably the oldest among the four modern-day Kumbh Melas. It dates from the early centuries CE, given it has been mentioned in several early Puranas. However, the name Kumbh for these more ancient bathing pilgrimages probably dates to the mid-19th century.

     D. P. Dubey states that none of the ancient Hindu texts call the Prayag fair a “Kumbh Mela”.

    Kama Maclean states that the early British records do not mention the name “Kumbh Mela” or the 12-year cycle for the Prayag fair. The first British reference to the Kumbh Mela in Prayag occurs only in an 1868 report, which mentions the need for increased pilgrimage and sanitation controls at the “Coomb fair” to be held in January 1870. According to Maclean, the Prayagwal Brahmin priests of Prayag coopted the Kumbh legend and brand to the annual Prayag Magh Mela given the socio-political circumstances in the 19th century.

    The Kumbh Mela at Ujjain began in the 18th century when the Maratha ruler Ranoji Shinde invited ascetics from Nashik to Ujjain for a local festival.

    Management of kumbh mela festival

      The Kumbh Melas have three dates around which the significant majority of pilgrims participate, while the festival itself lasts between one and three months around these dates. Each festival attracts millions, with the largest gathering at the Prayag Kumbh Mela and the second largest at Haridwar.

    The festival is observed over many days, with the day of Amavasya attracting the largest number on a single day. According to official figures, the largest one-day attendance at the Kumbh Mela was 30 million on 10 February 2013 and 50 million on 4 February 2019.

    The Kumbh Mela is curated like camps, facilitating access to Sadhus & Hindu worshippers. Two key groups central to the Kumbh Mela are the Sadhus (Hindu ascetics) and the pilgrims. Through their dedicated yogic practices, Sadhus embody the transient nature of life and play a vital role in connecting the spiritual and the mundane.

    The holy bath at the Kumbh festival

    Bathing, or a dip in the river waters with a prayer, is the most important ritual of the Kumbh Melas for all pilgrims including monks or Sadhu akharas.

     According to the traditions on a precalculated date of amavasya the Hindu pilgrims welcome and wait for the thirteen sadhu akharas to bathe first. This event is called shahi snan or rajyogi snan. This includes a celebratory processional march, with banners, flags, elephants, horses and musicians along with the naked or scantily clad monks, some smeared with bhasma (ashes) called akharas. These monk groups come from different parts of India, and have a particular emblem symbol and deity (Ganesha, Dattatreya, Hanuman, etc.).

    The largest contingent is the Juna akhara, traced to Adi Shankara, representing a diverse mix from the four of the largest Hindu monasteries in India with their headquarters at Sringeri, Dwarka, Jyotirmatha and Govardhana. The Mahanirbani and Niranjani are the other large contingents, and each akhara has their own lineage of saints and teachers.

     In this holy bath celebration, great crowd gather in reverence of Sadhu akharas and cheer for this procession. The holy bath by akhara monks, the festival day opens for bathing by the pilgrim visitors.

    Bathing ritual for the pilgrims in Kumbh mela may be aided by a Prayagwal priest or maybe done as a simple dip that is private. When the holy bath is done under the guidance of priests the rituals include mundan (shaving of head), prayers with offerings such as flowers, sindur (vermilion), milk or coconut, along with the recitation of hymns with shradha (prayers in the honour of one’s ancestors).

    This may include sometimes elaborate ceremonies of yajna (homa) led by a priest and followed by a dip in the water and prayer by the pilgrim. Later pilgrim exits the river waters and visit old Hindu temples near the site.

    The motivations for the bathing ritual is salvation or moksha – a means to liberation from the cycle of rebirths.

    The pilgrimage is also recommended in Hindu texts as a means of atonement, penance for the mistakes committed during lifetime. Pilgrimage and bathing in holy rivers with a motivation to do penance and as a means to self-purify has Vedic precedents and is discussed in the early dharma literature of Hinduism.

    Darshan in Kumbhamela

    After the holy dip in water pilgrims may visit the near by temple in the premises of Kumbh mela.The darshan experience is integral to the Kumbh Mela, and worshippers do it as an act of great reverence, understanding the religious sanctity of the moment.  It emphasizes a visual exchange—a divine connection with the deity’s power through sight. The pilgrims undertake this journey to experience the profound religious and cultural essence of the event.

    The pilgrims can interact with monks or Sadhu akharas during this period.The interaction with Sadhus allows pilgrims to seek spiritual guidance and advice.  In Kumbh mela  any kind of interactions with Sadhus are  very respectful, with devotees often leaving offerings at their feet as tokens of devotion and gratitude.

    Activities at Kumbhamela

     Kumbh mela provides a platform for religious discussions, devotional singing  and religious assemblies where doctrines are debated and standardised (shastrartha).

    The festival grounds also feature a wide range of cultural events including kalagram (venues of kala, Indian arts), laser light shows, classical dance and musical performances from different parts of India, thematic gates reflecting the historic regional architectural diversity, boat rides, tourist walks to historic sites near the river etc.

     The festival also offers opportunities to visit the monastic camps to watch yoga adepts and spiritual discourses.

    In the festival site the food to all is strictly vegetarian and the management has established multiple food stalls, offering delicacies from different states of India. The ritual practices are followed by celebratory feasts for the visitors and the pilgrims and all people sit in rows and share a community meal called mahaprasada that is prepared by volunteers from charitable donations

    The collective energy generated during the Mela strengthens social bonds and elevates individual and communal consciousness, illustrating the power of such gatherings to create shared identity and purpose.

    Caution of stampede

     According to some news agencies’ reports, in January 2025, at least 50 people died and 100 others were injured in the stampede at the Maha Kumbh venue in Prayagraj, and hence Amrit Snan or ritual bath was temporary suspended. It was announced that a judicial enquiry by a three-member committee would be conducted, led by Justice Harsh Kumar.

    Stampedes are common occurrences in many other important temple fests  and other huge events, however it is a grave reminder that in any holy place, extra caution  has to be  exerted in crowd management  with basic as well as emergency medical facilities along with a functional system for providing adequate  resources – food, water and other basic amenities. The authorities must ensure this basic safety and amenities for pilgrims with extra caution and sense of dutifulness in a festival like Kumbh mela , the echoes of which touch the global conscience as well as consciousness.

    Written by

    Dr sanjana p souparnika

    image courtesy-India today

  • Begam Hazrat Mahal

    Begum Hazrat Mahal was  a Muslim ruler of Awadh, India well- known forher bravery in taking control of ‘Awadh’ after he husband was exiled by the British empire. She rebelled against the british east india company during the Indian mutiny of 1857. Begum Hazrat Mahal (c. 1820 – 7 April 1879), also known as the Begum of Awadh, was the second wife of  Nawab of Awadh , and the regent of Awadh in 1857–1858.

    Early life

    No concrete data is available about the childhood of Begam hasrat mahal.She was born in 1820 at Faizabad, the former capital of Oudh State. 

    She was known by the name Muhammadi khanum in the earlier part of her life and was brought up as a dancing girl by her parents, who then sold her to the royal Palace- harem of the ruler of Awadh.

    Her life in the palace of Awadh began as a ‘khawasin’ (maid), and later promoted  as ‘pari’ (fairy). Later she became the concubine of the nawab of Awadh Wajid Ali Shah. During that relationship with nawab she gave birth to a son, Birjis qadar, the tajdaar-e-Awadh. The nawab married her, to make the son his legitimate heir, and then named her Begam Hazrat Mahal, the name with which she is known to history of India.

    The British East India company annexed Awadh in February of 1856, in its conquest of Indian states and annexation to British empire. As per the contract with East India company Nawab of Awadh agreed to be pensioned off to Calcutta and begam was not part of that entourage. Begam Hazrat Mahal was left in Awadh and she decided to fight for her rights in Awadh remaining with people of the land.she made her son, Prince Birjis Qadr, the ruler of Awadh, with herself as regent during his minority.

    In 1857  the sepoy mutiny erupted due to the  prolonged resentment and intolerance with the reign of East India company among Indian soldiers. Its repercussions echoed in Awadh too.

     Begam Hazrat Mahal  and her people made an army against the British East India company and decided to fight. She rebelled against the forces of the British under the leadership of Raja Jailal Singh; they seized control of Lucknow and she took power as the guardian of her minor son, Prince Birjis Qadr, whom she had declared as the ruler.

     As regent, she automatically came to have a leadership role in the rebellion against the British.

    Begam Hazrat Mahal took control of affairs as her son’s regent of Awadh and fought relentlessly for ten months against the British.  She was praised by many people of her time, ranging from the ordinary citizen of Awadh to the Mughal emperor – Bahadur shah jafar  for her courage and exemplary rule.

    Hazrat Mahal worked in association with Nana saheb, but later joined the Maulavi of faizabad in the attack on Shahjahanpur.

     A few British accounts of the battle of Musa bagh in Lucknow, testify that the begum was personally present in the battle ground, fighting and rallying the 9,000  rebels there. She was found in the war field riding an elephant during the battle as well.

    But It was difficult to stand against the mighty British for long for a small state like Awadh. She had to withdraw herself in front of the fire power and strategic help of other regions to British. However, she was not ready to surrender to the British army and live in exile.

    At the end of the war begam rejected the pension and mercy of British throne. She slipped out of Lucknow to the Himalayan belt fighting with the army and sought refuge in Nepal. She lived in Nepal till her last breath with no wealth left. Yet she was not ready to surrender to British throne even in those adverse circumstances. When she died in Nepal in 1879, it was very difficult to find money even for a grave for the people around her.

    Begum Hazrat Mahal’s tomb is located in the central part of Kathmandu near Jama Masjid, Ghantaghar,

    She will be remembered in the history of India for the exemplary courage with which she fought against British army and later preferring an ordinary life rejecting their agreement of  pension by surrendering.

    After her death, on the occasion of the jubilee of  Queen of England (1887), the British Government pardoned her son Birjis Qadr and he was allowed to return to India.

    Memorials & honours

    On 15 August 1962, Begam Hazrat Mahal was honoured at the Old Victoria Park in Hazratganj, Lucknow for her role in the Great mutiny in 1857. The renaming of the park to Begam Hazrat mahal park in her honour took place in this year and also a marble memorial was constructed, which includes a marble tablet with four round brass plaques bearing the coat of arms of the Awadh royal family. 

    A scholarship is given in her name through Maulana azad foundation to meritorious Girls belonging to minority communities by the government of India.

  • Badami cave temples, Karnataka

    The Badami cave temples are a complex of Buddhist, Hindu and Jain cave temples located in Badami, an ancient heritage town in the Bagalkot district in northern part of Karnataka, India. This is an instance of rock cut temple built in Chalukya architectural style

    .

    History & geographical location

    The Badami cave temples are located about 142 km east of Belagavi and 140 km northwest of Hampi.

    Badami   a heritage town, was previously known as “Vataapi”, the capital of the early Chalukya dynasty. Chalukyas ruled a significant portion of Karnataka from the 6th to the 8th century. Badami is situated on the west bank of a man-made lake Agastya Teertha ringed by an earthen wall with stone steps. In this serene heritage town, you can feel the footsteps of history in the vestiges and artefacts centuries have left behind.

        It is surrounded on the north and south by forts built during Early Chalukya  reign and in later times. The Malaprabha River is flowing silently [4.8 km away)  through this pilgrim land of ancient architectural marvels. The journey to Badami cave temples will definitely provide you an enthralling and delightful experience transporting into another period of time.

      The UNESCO world heritage site Pattadakal  [23km]and  Aihole – another site with over a hundred ancient and early medieval era Hindu, Jain and Buddhist monuments[ 35km] are close to Badami.

    The Badami temple complex has principally 4 caves. The first three caves feature sculptures of Hindu gods and legends focusing on Shiva and Vishnu, while Cave 4 features Jain icons and themes.

        It is believed that the cave temples are built in the late 6th century onwards. The exact dating is known only for Cave 3, which is a Hindu temple dedicated to Lord Vishnu.

    An inscription found here records the dedication of the shrine by Mangalesha in Saka 500 (solar calendar, 578/579 CE). The inscription is written in the old Kannada language and it denotes the dating of these rock cave temples to the 6th century. This makes the cave 3 temple of Badami as the oldest firmly-dated Hindu cave temple in India.

    Architecture of Badami cave temples

    The temple is built on a rocky terrain in red sandstone and here you can explore the Chalukya architectural style.The Badami rock temple caves include 4 caves, all in the escarpment of the hill in soft Badami sandstone formation, to the south-east of the town.

    The complex includes four caves principally, although a few caves are also located in the premises. Around the lake, Badami has additional caves and one of them is believed to be a Buddhist cave. Another Cave like gallery known as Arali Tirtha has around twenty-seven carvings.

    Four cave temples in the escarpment of the hill to the south-east of the town were carved into the cliff’s monolithic stone face. The escarpment is above a man-made lake called Agastya Teertha, created by an earthen dam faced with stone steps.

     The largest and highest cave is Cave 3 in the complex and it is situated further to the east on the northern face of the hill. The fourth cave, Cave 4, is a few steps down further east. The cave has fine carvings exhibiting matured stage of Karnataka ancient art. Cave 4 is dedicated to revered figures of Jainism.

    The artwork in Caves 1 and 2 exhibit the northern Deccan style of the 6th and 7th centuries, while those in Cave 3 represent two ancient Indian artistic traditions; the northern Nagara and the southern Dravida styles.Cave 3 also shows icons and reliefs in the so-called Vesara style, a fusion of ideas from the two styles, as well as some of the earliest surviving historical examples in Karnataka of yantra-chakra motifs (geometric symbolism) and colored fresco paintings.

     Cave 1 is a Hindu temple and here you can find various sculptures of Hindu divinities and themes along with  a prominent carving of the dancing Shiva as Nataraja. Cave 2  goes in the same architectural line of cave 1 in  its layout and dimensions, featuring Hindu subjects of which the Hari Hara, Ardhanari shiva, Mahishamardini, Dwi Bahu Ganesha and Skanda in a separate antechamber on extended cave at western side-next to great Nataraja sculpture. The Cave 2 also has premier images  of Vishnu as Trivikrama and it is the largest.

    The largest cave, Cave 3, featuring Vishnu as Ananta seated on coiled serpent, Varaha with Bhudevi, Harihara, Narasimha in standing posture, great image of Trivikrama and Virata Vishnu.

    which Alice Boner – a Swiss art historian and Indologist, states is a time division symbolizing the cosmic wheel.

    The Badami cave temples- Interior architecture &themes

    Cave I of Badami   :

    Nataraja Carving is the significant feature of this cave. The cave depicts the Tandava-dancing Shiva as Nataraja on the rock face to the right of entrance. The image, 5 feet (1.5 m) tall, has 18 arms (9 in left and 9 on right) in a form that expresses the dance position (about 9×9=81 combinations in total) arranged in a geometric pattern. The eighteen arms express Natya mudras (symbolic hand gestures), with some holding objects such as drums, a flame torch, a serpent, a trident and an axe.

    Shiva has his son Ganesha and the bull Nandi by his side.

    The wall depicts the goddess Durga of Shaktism tradition slaying the buffalo-demon Mahishasura. The carvings and its accuracy show that sculptors who built this cave temple  were  very proficient in the Natya mudras of Bharatanatya dance form.

    Mahisasura Mardini Carving

    On the right side of the Nataraja carving is a carving of Mahishasura mardini with Chaturbhuja (Chatur means 4, Bhuja means hands). The sculpture depicts the killing of the demon Mahishasura by godess Durga.  According to legends and myths Mahishasura, a demon was the son of Mahisi and great grandson of Bhahmarishi Kashyapa.

    On the left of the entrance is a two-handed Shaiva dvarapala who holds a trident, and below him is a bull-elephant fused image where they share a head; seen from left it is an elephant and from right a bull.

    Harihara Carving

    Inside the veranda, the cave depicts a carved sculpture of Harihara, a 7.75-foot (2.36 m) high sculpture of a fused image that is half-Shiva and half-Vishnu. He is flanked by the goddesses Parvati and Lakshmi on each side.

    Ardhanareshwara Carving

    To the right, toward the end of the wall, is a relief sculpture of Ardhanarishvara, a fused image of Shiva and his consort Parvati. One half of the image has Shiva with a moon on his mukuta (head), snakes in his hands, earrings and next to the half that represents Parvati is an attendant carrying a tray of jewels.

    It delineates the vision of the Chalukya kings delivering message to the Chalukya citizens about gender equality.

    On the ceiling of this cave  are images of the Vidyadhara couples as well as couples in courtship and erotic Mithuna scenes.

     Through a cleft in the back wall of the cave is a square sanctuary with more carved images.

    In the mantapa is a seated Nandi facing the garbha ghruha (sacrum sanctum) containing a Shiva linga.

    Cave 2 of Badami

    Cave 2 is above and to the east of Cave 1 and faces north. It was built in late 6th or early 7th century. It is smaller than Cave 1 and it is dedicated primarily to Lod Vishnu. It depicts the legend of Vishnu in his Trivikrama form.

    Inside the temple are friezes showing stories from Hindu texts such as the Bhagavata Purana. These show the legend of cosmic ocean churning (Samudra Manthan) and Krishna’s birth and flute playing indicating the theological and cultural significance of these in 7th century India.

     The ceiling and door head carvings show Gajalakshmi, the swastika symbols, flying couples, Brahma, Vishnu.

    The ceiling of Cave 2 shows a wheel with sixteen fish spokes in a square frame. The end bays have a flying couple and Vishnu on Garuda.

    Cave3 of Badami

    Cave 3 is considered as the earliest dated Hindu temple in the Deccan region. It is dedicated to Lord Vishnu and it is the largest cave in the complex.

    The cave is facing north, 60 steps from Cave 2 at a higher level. The cave is 15 feet (4.6 m) high; it is supported by six pillars, each measuring 2.5 square feet (0.23 m2). It has intricately carved friezes and giant figures of Trivikrama, Anantasayana, Vasudeva, Varaha, Harihara and Narasimha.

    This temple is built in Vaishnavite theme; however, it also shows Harihara on its southern wall –  half Vishnu and half Shiva shown fused as one.

    Cave 3 also shows fresco paintings on the ceiling, some of which are faded and broken. These are among the earliest known surviving evidence of fresco painting in Indian art.

     The Hindu god Brahma is portrayed on Hamsa vahana in one of the mural paintings. The wedding of Shiva and Parvati, attended by various Hindu deities is depicted in another painting.

    Cave 4 of Badami

     The cave 4 is located immediately adjacent to and east of Cave 3.  The floor is situated about 10 feet lower and is the smallest of the four caves of this land. It is dedicated to Tirthankaras, the revered figures of Jainism.

    It was constructed after the first three, sponsored by Hindu kings in later part of the 7th-century. Some scholars are of the view that this cave may have been created in the 8th century.

     Also it has been proposed that some  embellishments seems to be added in the  subsequent centuries until about the 11th or 12th century.

    Cave 4  shows detailed carvings and a diverse range of motifs. The cave has a five-bayed entrance with four square columns – each with brackets and capitals. To the back of this verandah is a hall with two standalone and two joined pillars

    Inside the cave are major carvings of Bahubali, Parshvanatha and Mahavira with symbolic display of other Tirthankaras.

    Bahubali is standing in Kayotsarga meditating posture with vines wrapped around his leg, his classic iconography. Parshvanatha is shown with the five-headed cobra hood.

    Mahavira is represented sitting on a lion throne.

    Other carvings include Indrabhuti Gautama covered by four snakes, Brahmi and Sundari.

    In the sanctum is an image of Mahavira resting on a pedestal containing a 12th-century Kannada inscription marking the death of one Jakkave. Twenty-four small Jaina Tirthankara images are engraved on the inner pillars and walls. In addition there are idols of Yakshas, Yakshis and Padmavati.

    Other unnamed caves of Badami

       Apart from the numbered 4 main caves of Badami, this land has a few other centuries old caves with statues and carvings.  History sleeps in this land of temples which is believed to be built in medieval era. On the other side of the lake, near the Bhutanatha temple, there is a 7th-8th century Chalukya period cave with a carved statue seated over a sculpted throne with reliefs showing people holding chauris (fans), a Pipal tree, elephants, and lions in an attacking pose.

         According to colonial-era texts of John Murray – a Jainism scholar  & missionary in British India, the main image carved in this Cave  is that of a Jaina figure.  However, it has been contradicted by archeologists Henry Cousens and A. Sundara and their views have been buttressed by local legends, which proposes that the statue is of an ancient king.  Because in a photograph of the statue taken before its face was damaged, the figure lacked the Ushnisha lump that typically found with Buddha’s image.

    The statue has several unusual, non-Buddha ornaments such as rings for fingers, a necklace, and a chest-band; it wears a Hindu Yajnopavita thread and its head is stylistically closer to a Jina head than a Buddha’s head. These features point out that the statue may be of a king represented with features of various traditions. There are no clear-cut evidence regarding the century of construction of this main statue.

     Adjacent to the controversial cave are other monuments belonging to the ancient centuries. One of them is a small shrine consisting of a 7th-century rock carving of Anantashayana Vishnu, or reclining Vishnu with Lakshmi and Garuda in namaste posture.

    In 2013, Manjunath Sullolli, Assistant Director of Bagalkot district working for the state government of Karnataka, reported the discovery of another cave with 27 rock carvings, about 500 metres (1,600 ft) from the four main caves.

    Water gushes from this newly discovered cave year-round. It depicts Vishnu and other Hindu deities, and features an inscription in the Devanagari script. The dating of these carvings also is unknown.

    Best time to visit Badamicaves

    November to February is the best season to visit. The weather is fine cool and and clear. Other months are less recommended as scorching summer or Monsoon rain may make it difficult to travel and explore.

    Internet Connectivity

    BSNL or Cell one connectivity is available

    How to reach Badami ?

    The nearest airports to Badami in Karnataka are Hubli and Belgam. Hubli is connected to Banglore and Mumbai airports.

     From Hubli cabs are available to Badami[105km].

    From Belgam to Badami [150km]

    Badami is connected to other cities by bus.

    For international travelers

    Flight to Banglore and train to Badami [447km]-7 hours 51 minutes

    Flight to Pune airport[Mumbai] and then train to Badami[470km] 9 hours 28 min

    Flight to Hyderabad [Andrapradesh]airport and train to Badami.[420km] 9 hours 32 min

    References

    1.Evolution of Temple Architecture – Aihole-Badami- Pattadakalhttps://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5972

    2. Badami around the Tank:

    Western Chalukya Monuments

    http://www.art-and-archaeology.com/india/badami/baplan.html

    3. cave 4 Badami. http://www.art-and-archaeology.com/india/badami/cave403.html

    4. Chronology and Development of the Chāḷukya Cave Temples https://www.jstor.org/stable/4629258

    5. Badami cavetemples. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badami_cave_temples

    6. Upinder Singh (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century

  • Sanchi Buddhist Monuments

    The stupas, temples, viharas, and stambha monuments at Sanchi in Madhyapradesh,India are among the oldest and most relevant examples of aniconic arts and free-standing architecture that comprehensively document the history of Buddhism in ancient India.

    Dr.Sanjana p Souparnika

    Sanchi Stupa is a Buddhist complex, famous for its Great Stupa, on a hilltop at Sanchi Town in Raisen District of the State of Madhya Pradesh, India. It is located 46 kilometres (29 mi) north-east of Bhopal, capital of Madhya Pradesh.

    The stupas, temples, viharas, and stambha at Sanchi in central India are among the oldest and most mature examples of aniconic arts and free-standing architecture that comprehensively document the history of Buddhism from the 3rd century BCE to the 12th century CE. It is an important monument of Indian Architecture originally commissioned by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE. The stupa at Sanchi built during the Mauryan period was made of bricks.

    The monuments at Sanchi now comprise a series of Buddhist monuments starting from the Mauryan Empire period (3rd century BCE), continuing with the Gupta Empire period (5th century CE), and ending around the 12th century CE. It is probably the best preserved group of Buddhist monuments in India.

    The oldest, and also the largest monument, the Great Stupa also called Stupa No. 1, initially built under the Mauryans, and adorned with one of the Pillars of Ashoka

       Sanchi is the center of a region with a number of stupas, all within a few miles of Sanchi. These include

    • Satdhara (9 km to the W of Sanchi]
    • The  Relics of Sariputra and Mahamoggallana
    • Bhojpur (also called Morel Khurd, a fortified hilltop with 60 stupas11km away)
    •  Andher (17 km SE of Sanchi)
    • Sonari (10 km SW of Sanchi)
    •  Saru Maru stupa [ 100 km away ]
    • Bharhut is 300 km to the northeast.

    During the reign of under the Shungas and the Satavahanas, the Great Stupa was enlarged and decorated with gates and railings, and smaller stupas were also built in the vicinity, especially Stupa No.2, and Stupa No.3

    Sanchi monuments were rediscovered by the British colonialists general Henry Taylor in 1818.The first excavation of this site was done under the supervision of Major Alexander Cunningham in 1851.

    The architecture of great stupa at Sanchi

    The “Great Stupa” at Sanchi is the oldest structure and was originally commissioned by the emperor Ashoka the Great of the Maurya Empire in the 3rd century BCE.

    Its nucleus was a hemispherical brick structure built over the sacred relics of the Buddha, with a raised terrace encompassing its base, and a railing and stone umbrella on the summit, the chatra, a parasol-like structure symbolizing high rank.

    The original Stupa only had about half the diameter of today’s stupa at Sanchi , which is further enhanced by the Sungas. It was covered in brick, unlike the stones that now cover it.

    During the later rule of the Shunga, the stupa was expanded with stone slabs to almost twice its original size. The dome was flattened near the top and crowned by three superimposed parasols within a square railing. With its many tiers it was a symbol of the dharma, the Wheel of the Law. The dome was set on a high circular drum meant for circumambulation, which could be accessed via a double staircase. A second stone pathway at ground level was enclosed by a stone balustrade.

    Myths & history associated with Sanchi stupa

      According to one version of the Mahavamsa, the Buddhist chronicle of Sri Lanka, The emperor Ashoka is closely linked with the region of Sanchi. It is believed that While he was heir-apparent and was journeying as Viceroy to Ujjain, he is said to have halted at Vidisha (10 kilometers from Sanchi), and there married the daughter of a local banker who was named as Devi. Sanchi was the venue of Devi and Ashoka’s wedding.

     The original construction work of this stupa was overseen by Ashoka. In the 1st century BCE, four elaborately carved toranas (ornamental gateways) and a balustrade encircling the entire structure were added.

    Inscriptions

    Sanchi, especially Stupa 1, has a large number of Brahmi inscriptions. Although most of them are small and mention donations, they are of great historical significance. James Prinsep in 1837, found that most of them ended with the same two Brahmi characters. Princep took them as “danam” (donation), which permitted the decipherment of the Brahmi script.

        An analysis of the deciphered scripts  denote that most of the donors were from Ujjain, Vidisha, Kurara, Nadinagar, Mahisati, Kurghara, Bhogavadhan and Kamdagigam. Three inscriptions are known from Yavana (Indo-Greek)donors at Sanchi,. The script denoting which reads “Setapathiyasa Yonasa danam” (“Gift of the Yona of Setapatha”), Setapatha being an uncertain city.

    The art of Sanchi

    The  art of Sanchi  developed considerably in the 1st century BCE/CE and is thought to predate the blooming of the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, which went on to flourish until around the 4th century CE.

    The art of Sanchi is considered as the ancestor of the didactic forms of Buddhist art that would follow, such as the art of Gandhara. The Buddhist monuments at Sanchi contain an appreciable concentration of early Indian artistic techniques and Buddhist art, referred to as its Anionic School or Phase. Depicting Buddha through symbols, the sculpted art shows the evolution in sculpting techniques and the elaboration of icons, especially depicting Buddha.

    Ashoka pillar

    A pillar of finely polished sandstone, one of the Pillars of Ashoka, was also erected on the side of the main Torana gateway. The bottom part of the pillar still stands. The upper parts of the pillar are at the nearby Sanchi Archaeological Museum. The capital consists in four lions, which probably supported a Wheel of Law.

    The pillar has an Ashokan inscription (Schism Edict)[13] and an inscription in the ornamental Sankha Lipi from the Gupta period.[6] The Ashokan inscription is engraved in early Brahmi characters. It is unfortunately much damaged, but the commands it contains appear to be the same as those recorded in the Sarnath and Kausambi edicts, which together form the three known instances of Ashoka’s “Schism Edict”. It relates to the penalties for schism in the Buddhist sangha:

    … the path is prescribed both for the monks and for the nuns. As long as (my) sons and great-grandsons (shall reign; and) as long as the Moon and the Sun (shall endure), the monk or nun who shall cause divisions in the Sangha, shall be compelled to put on white robes and to reside apart. For what is my desire? That the Sangha may be united and may long endure.

    Now  Sanchi group of monuments are owned by the Government of India and is conserved, prot

    ected, maintained, and managed by the Archaeological Survey of India under the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains (AMASR) Act (1958

    Sanchi Monument listed by UNESCO

    Currently , around fifty monuments remain on the hill of Sanchi, including three main stupas and several temples. The monuments have been listed among other famous monuments in the UNESCO World Heritage Sites since 1989.

    How to reach Sanchi?

    The nearest airport is Bhopal which is 55 km away from it. Trains are available from Bhopal and Rani Kamlapati to Sanchi railway station.

    References

  • UNESCO world heritage sites of India

    UNESCO World heritage sites of India

    Dr.Sanjana p Souparnika

    World Heritage Sites are landmarks and areas with legal protection by an international convention administered by UNESCO for having cultural, historical, or scientific significance. The  “cultural and natural heritage around the world considered to be of outstanding value to humanity”

    World Heritage Sites might be ancient ruins or historical structures, buildings, cities] deserts, forests, islands, lakes, monuments, mountains or wilderness areas

    The sites are intended for practical conservation for posterity, which otherwise would be subject to risk from human or animal trespassing or negligence.  These sites are demarcated by UNESCO as protected zones.

    Intangible cultural heritage from India

    • Koodiyattam  -a performing art from kerala
    • Ramlila performing arts from Ramayana
    • Ramman festival -It is a festival of the Garhwali people of Saloor Dungra village of Himalayas.
    • Cchau dance of westbengal  &Odisha
    • Kalbelia folk songs and dances of Rajasthan 
    • Mudiyettu, ritual theatre and dance drama of Kerala
    • Buddhist chanting of Ladakh: recitation of sacred Buddhist texts in the trans-Himalayan Ladakh region,
    • Sankirtana, ritual singing, drumming and dancing of Manipur
    • Thatheras  handicrafts of Jandiala Guru, Punjab,
    • Naroz festival of Parsi community
    • Kumbh mela festival of Ujjain,Haridwar
    • Garba dance festival of Gujrat

    Tangible  cultural heritage of India

    A. Natural heritage sites

    • Great Himalayan national park,Himachal Pradesh
    • Kaziranga national park, Assam
    • Keoladeo national park , Rajasthan
    • Manas wild life sanctuary, Assam
    • Nandadevi &valley of flowers national park, uttaranchal
    • Sunderbans national park,West bengal
    • Western ghats , Kerala, south India

    B. Man made Heritage sites

    • Agra fort Uttar pradesh
    • Ajanta caves Maharashtra
    • Sanchi buddhist monuments Madhyapradesh
    • Champaner-pavhadh  archeological park,Gujrat
    • Chatrapathi Shivaji terminal Maharashtra
    • Elephanta caves Maharashtra
    • Ellora caves  Maharashtra
    • Goa churches Goa
    • Fatehpur Sikri Uttar pradesh
    • Great living Chola temples Tamilnadu
    • Monuments at Hampi Karnataka
    • Monuments of Mahabhalipuram Tamilnadu
    • Monuments at Pattadakkal karnataka
    • Hill fort at Rajasthan Rajasthan
    • Humayon’ s tomb Delhi
    • Monuments of Khajuraho  Madhyapradesh
    • Maha bodhi temple complex Bodh gaya Bihar
    • Mountain railways of India  Westbengal
    • Qutb minar Delhi
    • Rani-ki-vav stepwell Gujrat
    • Red fort complex New Delhi
    • Rockshelters of Bimbetka Madhyapradesh
    • Sun temple konark
    • Taj mahal Uttar pradesh
    • Jantar mantar Jaipur Rajasthan
    • Nalanda university Bihar
    • Architectural work of Le corbuster Chandigarh
    • Historic city of Ahmedbad Gujarat
    • Victorian,gothic and art ensembles of Mumbai Maharashtra
    • Jaipur city Rajasthan

    C. Mixed type

    • Khangchendzonga National Park sikkim

  • Thalagunda – Pranaveswara temple a connecting link to the history of south India

    This image has an empty alt attribute; its file name thalagunda temple-1.jpg

    Praveswara temple, Thalagunda in Karnataka is an ancient shiva temple of Kadamba dynasty , a monument protected monument by Archeological Survey of India[ASI] due to its historical significance.

    Thalagunda,karnataka

    Thalagunda is a village in the Shikaripura taluk of Shivamogga district in the state of Karnataka, India. The village has been referred as Sthala-Kundura, Sthana-Kundur and Sthana-kunja-pura during ancient period. This hamlet is situated about 45 km from Banavasi, 20 km from Soraba and 7 km from Siralkoppa town.

    There are many ancient temples in Thalagunda village including pranaveshvara, gangaadhareshvara, trineetra and veerabhadra temples. Praveswara temple is a protected monument by Archeological Survey of India[ASI] due to its historical significance.

    According to the inscription found in the pillar of pranaveswara temple, it can be assumed that the temple was worshiped by earlier rulers including the Satakarnis. The temple dates back to the Satavahana period. However the current findings of architecture denotes that it is not of the Satavahana period but of the early Kadambas although explorations around the temple premises had revealed brick structure of the Satavahana period.

    Pranaveswara temple

      The temple is a small square building consisting of a garbhagriha and a sukanasi. There is a huge Shivalinga inside the sanctum. The garbha-griha doorway jambs are carved out of Kadamba inscription stones, the entrance doorway construction style denotes that it is of a later period, perhaps of the eleventh century CE.

    Thalagunda inscription pillar

    The Talagunda pillar inscription of Kakusthavarman is a well known epigraphic record in Sanskrit found in the ruined pranaveswara temple. The pillar is located in front of the Pranavalingeshwara temple.

    The inscriptions are engraved on hard grey granite and dated to between 455 and 470 CE. It throws light into the history of Kadamba dynasty and the reign of king Śāntivarma in northwest Karnataka.

    The pillar is 1.635 metres (5.36 ft) high with a 0.4 metres (1.3 ft) square top. It is octagonal shaft that slightly tapers and narrows as it goes up. The width of the octagonal face is 0.178 metres (0.58 ft). The inscription is found on all faces, but on 7 of the 8 faces, it consists of two vertical lines that start at the bottom of the pillar. On the eighth face, we can find just one short line.

    The inscription consists of 34 poetic verses that respect the chanda rules of Sanskrit. It is the earliest epigraphical evidence found in Karnataka about the existence of a Hindu temple dedicated to Shiva in Talagunda, the construction of a temple water tank, and the practice of worshipping the Shiva Linga before about 450 CE.

    The inscription unravels the glory of Kanchipuram as a center (ghatika) for advanced studies in ancient India, where the already learned Brahmin Mayurasarman from Talagunda goes with his counsellor to study the whole Veda. It also throws light into the cultural values and customs prevailed in the 5th-century India with the mention of “music” and goddess of wealth (Lakshmi) and speaks about the practice of marriage between north Indian and South Indian empires.

    How to reach Thalagunda ?

    The nearest railway station is Shivamoga .You may reach Manglore or Bangluru by flight and may reach Shivamoga by train or bus service. Approximately a one and half hour journey from Shivamoga by cab may help you reach Thalagunda[77.5km].

    References

  • Balligavi art gallery

    Balligavi karnataka

    Dr.Sanjana p Souparnika

    Balligavi art gallery is situated close to Kedareswara temple in Balligavi , Shimoga district, which is a pilgrim centre where main deity is Mahadev or Shiva .

    Balligavi , is a town in Shikaripura taluk of Shivmoga district. Its an ancient town with various names such as Baligrama, Dakshina Kedara, Valliggame and is well -known for ancient sculptures and idols.

    Balligavi was an important city during the 11th – 12th century Western Chalukya rule. The term Anadi Rajadhani (ancient capital) used in medieval inscriptions to describe this town

    Archeologically Balligavi dates back to Satavahana -Kadamba era of ancient history[4th- 5 th century A.D. The earliest inscription mentioning the name Balligavi is a 685 CE Badami Chalukya inscription.

    Myth

    It is believed that Pandavas of Mahabharatha [epic] visited Balligavi during their vanavasa [ forest sojourn] period and installed shiva linga ,more precisely panchalinga and the seity of the temple later established here is known by the name panchalingeswara.

    kedareswara temple of Balligavi is a hoysala chalukya architectural temple which includes the art gallery in its premises .

    The art gallery displays very ancient idols and sculptures which are the vestiges of the bygone era. Many of these sculptures are broken.

    The gallery also has numerous paintings which delineate the history of Sreekedareswara temple.

    Balligavi art gallery

    The art gallery displays idols & sculptures of ancient era . The sculptures describes the Hindu god shiva ,Ganapathi, devi parvathi or Durga. Kedareswara temple is a pilgrim centre where main deity is Mahadev or Shiva . The archeological gallery is located within the temple premises on the left side.

    The Balligavi art gallery and temple is protected by Archeological survey of India. Sculptures and idols are displayed as two sections inside and outside the art gallery.

    Paintings of ancient Kedareswara temple & many huge sculptures are found inside the art gallery building .

    Numerous ganapathi , devi durga idols in stone are placed outside the art gallery building in an ancient Mandapa like structure which seems to be part of the Kedareswara temple. This stone construction has no roof over it . Many sculptures and parts of this mandapa are in a dilapidated condition. However the temple and art gallery built in Hoysala architectural style hasn’t lost their splendor and magnificence overtime.

    How to reach Balligavi ?

    Balligavi is located in Shivamoga district of Karnatakka.

    Nearest airport is Belgaum . from Belgaum 224km by road to Balligavi.

    One can also reach from Manglore by cab or bus [ 253km] in around 4 hrs 42 minutes.