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Category: Landscape

Fossils to decipher the geological &evolutionary history of the earth
Fossils are the windows to the evolutionary history of Earth and its organisms. They provide valuable information about the geological and evolutionary history of Earth.
Fossils are the are the remains of ancient organisms or the traces of activity of such organisms. They are preserved remains or traces of ancient life.
Paleontogy is the branch of science dealing with study of fossils. More precisely paleontologists explore the evolutionary pathways, past geological environment, climate, tectonic movements etc. through the study of fossils received from various geographical regions of the world.
Fossil studies have vital role in portraying the history and geology of various countries and continents. There are different types of fossils and they help reconstruct “the tree of life”. The remains of ancient life or fossils include bones, shells, footprints, burrows and impressions which help to decipher the evolutionary, geological, cultural history of the earth.
Geological History is unravelled through the study of fossils as they date rock layers or strata and correlate geological time across different regions.
Fossilized dung and footprints also throw light into the ancient history of different regions and the animals lived there. It throws light also into archaeological studies unravelling the civilizational history spanning over continents and time.
Fossils are indicators of the climate prevailed in the historic times. They also provide vital information about plate tectonics and evolutionary history of continents, mountains, ocean basins etc.
Types of Fossils
There are different types of fossils and each type of fossils have particular significance in paleontological, geological &archaeological studies. The chief fossil types include:
- Body Fossils: These include preserved parts such as bones, shells, wood or imprints of organisms.
- Trace Fossils: these types of fossils are evidence of activity particularly of animals such as tracks, burrows, nests, coprolites. Trace fossils provide evidences for the organism’s presence in a particular chronological period of history. The trace fossils include footprints, burrows, dungs etc.
- Molecular Fossils: These are preserved organic molecules, providing hints about ancient biochemistry.
Fossilization- How do fossils form?
Fossilization is a complex process of fossil formation happening spontaneously overtime. It requires rapid burial in sediment (like mud or ash) to prevent decaying. Fossilization of hard parts (bones, shells) is the most common type.
Fossils undergo a variety of different fossilization processes, depending on the characteristics of the particular organism. There are various levels of fossil preservation, each containing its own clues pertaining to the organism.
Fossilization processes include:
- Permineralization: Minerals fill pores, turning organic matter to rock.
- Compression: Organic matter is squeezed into a
carbon film.
- Impressions: the two-dimensional imprint most commonly found in silt or clay, without organic material present.
- Compactions: preservation of organic material with slight volume reduction.
- Molecular fossils: deals with chemical data, preserving organic material, but providing no information concerning the structure of the organism.
- Freezing: ideal fossils that are rare, everything up to internal organs are preserved in cold storage.
- Amber: biological specimen that is encased in the hardened resin of a tree, in which the entire body may be preserved.
- Drying & Desiccation: fossils that have been thoroughly dried.
- Wax & Asphalt: almost as good as freezing, but with the usage of natural paraffin.
- Coprolites & Gastroliths: these categories deal with the indigestable remnants of meals.
- Trace fossils: typically formed when an organism moves over the surface of soft sediment and leaves an impression of its movement behind.
- Molds & Casts: An impression is left, then filled.
Conditions that facilitate fossilization
Fossilization is a complex process and certain conditions are crucial for fossilization. The most common types of fossils are those which are having hard parts such as bones& Shell and had a rapid burial after death of the organism.
Besides being tough and hard, the organism must come to rest in a place where it can be buried before it decays or disintegrates. If the organism is not buried deeply and quickly, aerobic bacteria will reduce it to rubble. Water, given enough time, can also dissolve it. For this reason, fossils of some organisms are rarer than others.
The skeletons that containing a high percentage of mineral matter are most readily preserved. The soft tissue that is not close to skeletal parts is less likely to be preserved.
Other conditions that lead to fossilization include resting an environment that was biologically inert, areas that are receiving a large, steady supply of sediment (deltas of major rivers), and parts of the earth below sea level compared to those above the sea level.
The ideal place to become a fossil is at the bottom of a quiet sea or lake where the prospective fossil is least likely to be damaged. Moreover, it can be covered rapidly with sediment.
Clay provides ideal conditions for fossilization as the sediment protects the tissues and helps to exclude predators and solvent water.
How do fossils unravel the past?
- Origin of life -evolutionary history through fossil study
Fossils provides snapshots of the past which when gathered together yields the whole picture of evolutionary change over the past 3.5 billion years although there could be some missing links.
Life originated in the marine environment or sea. The earliest evidence of life on earth is of marine animals, during the Precambrian era. The oldest known Precambrian rocks, found in Africa and Australia [ more than three billion years old]and the fossils found among them are of the oldest known organisms on earth.
The fossils on ancient rocks are of Eobacterium and other water environment fossils. Bacteria e are the first recognizable organized form of life. However, it is a curious fact that scientists have found well defined remains of algae and bacteria from around two billion years ago.
Commonly fossils are found in sedimentary rock. These types of rocks have significance in the evolutionary history as well as in geological history. Sedimentary layers act as evidence of the changing climate or movement of the continents during the passage of time.
Fossils that are preserved in amber give amount of information about the anatomy of that organism. Insects that have been trapped and preserved perfectly in amber (fossilised tree resin). Here organism is usually preserved intact without any disintegration of organs, muscles, and coloring. Even bones may tell a great deal about the soft anatomy.
Some parts of a few fossils can also give an account of growth, injury, disease, form, function, activities, and instincts.
Fossils record the successive evolutionary diversification of living things, the successive colonization of habitats, and the development of increasingly complex organic communities.
Fossils can chronicle about the environment and the climatic conditions under which the organisms lived.
- Fossils as geological time markers
In geological science fossils act as time markers. They throw light into the age and sequence of rock layers (strata) and the evolution of life, with specific fossils appearing and disappearing at certain periods, marking major boundaries like eras and periods.
Fossils help geo-scientists to correlate rock ages and understand Earth’s history.
Fossil study shows the time when species evolve and become extinct. Fossils of some plants and animals are confined to known, specific periods of geological time. Thus, fossils give us a useful insight into the history of life on Earth. The evolution of human beings and other life forms, the change in environment through geological time are unravelled by fossils.
They also give an account of tectonic plate movements happened in the past and evidence for collisions or continental drifts that separated continents. Fossil study of various geographical regions helps to find out the similarities in species and evolution of new species happening overtime, as a result of isolation of continents by tectonic activity.
Fossils provide important evidence for evolution and the adaptation of plants and animals to their environments.
Fossils can also be used to date rocks and throw lights into geological history. Different kinds of fossils occur in rocks of different ages and they are evidences of evolutionary as well as geological change overtime.
Fossils buttress the study of environmental degradation by providing a baseline of past, pristine environmental conditions and by offering a continuous record of how ecosystems responded to both natural and human-induced changes over time.
In a nut shell fossils are windows to the past which opens into the vast expanse of buried scientific facts which trigger explorations in different fields of science and technology to know the unknown or more precisely the mysteries of the Earth.
written by dr sanjana p souparnika
Reference for further reading
- https://www.bgs.ac.uk/discovering-geology/fossils-and-geological-time/fossils/
- https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/ucmp_oldsite_nonwpfiles/paleo/fossils/
December 17, 2025
Impact of plate tectonics on biodiversity
The term “Biodiversity” encompasses a wide variety of life on Earth, with a large diversity of genes, species, and ecosystems. Tectonic plate movements and its consequent climate and habitat change have detrimental impact on biodiversity and evolution of species.
Biodiversity is a hotly debated and researched topic from time to time by numerous scientists & environmentalists in relation to climate, ecosystems and demographic characteristics. Its significance has been enhanced unprecedently in this modern era as multiple factors influence and impact on biodiversity.
Biodiversity is integral part of sustenance life on earth as it is essential to sustain the constant flow of clean air, fresh water, and food. Biodiversity plays key role in regulating the climate, and maintaining healthy ecosystems that support human well-being.
Biodiversity is studied by scientists conducting expeditions to survey and monitor species, habitats, and their interactions. On these expeditions, they collect data on various parameters such as population sizes and trends, distribution and habitat use, and impacts of management or other human activities.
Since prehistoric times the earth and ecosystems have been subjected to transformations and extinctions. It is an unfortunate fact that currently the impacts on biodiversity are happening in an unprecedented rate.
There has been an enhanced threat to biodiversity in the recent decades including habitat loss and fragmentation, excessive use of unsustainable resources, pollution, global climate change, emergence of invasive species.
Biodiversity is influenced by a wide array of factors. The population is exploding all over the world and its impact on biodiversity is unimaginable. Overconsumption of resources and human intervention on biodiversity has adverse impacts on mankind.
However, plate tectonics have a massive impact on biodiversity creating as well as destroying species and accelerating the process of evolution.
Plate tectonics
Movement of tectonic plates on the crust of Earth’s surface [plate tectonics] has major biogeographical consequences. Evidences suggest that tectonic activity began over 4 billion years ago. Collisions or rifting movements of plates creating and destroying habitats of organisms continues spanning centuries. It is happening through continental drift &by forming physical barriers like mountains through plate collisions.
Modern understanding of planetary dynamics including plate tectonics unravel the habitat loss or creation stemming from geographical changes like this.
Tectonic plate movement range from 10 to 40 millimetres per year (0.4 to 1.6 in/year). Where the plates meet, their relative motion determines the type of plate boundary as convergent, divergent, or transform.
[Read more about plate tectonics]
Tectonic movements are of different types.
1. Ocean-to-continent subduction, where the dense oceanic lithosphere plunges beneath the less dense continent plate. At zones of ocean-to-continent subduction mountain ranges form.
2. Ocean-to-ocean subduction where older, cooler, denser oceanic crust slips beneath less dense oceanic crust. Deep marine trenches are typically associated with subduction zones.
3. At continental collision zones two masses of continental lithospheres are converging. As they are of similar density, neither is subducted.
The plate edges are compressed, folded, and uplifted forming mountain ranges,
4. At zones of ocean-to-ocean rifting, divergent boundaries form by seafloor spreading, allowing for the formation of new ocean basin. Two plates slide apart from each other. This rifting when happens on oceanic plates it leads to formation of new ocean basin.
5.Transform boundaries (conservative boundaries or strike-slip boundaries)
Here plates are neither created nor destroyed. Instead, two plates slide, or precisely they grind past each other, along transform faults. Strong earthquakes may happen along a fault.
Impact of plate tectonics on biodiversity
Tectonic movements and continental deformation consequent to that lead to complexity of habitat. They trigger a complex landscape response. For instance, a river network reorganization including river captures by tectonic forces leads to an unusually high diversity of habitat through isolation, creation or destruction of facets of the landscape.
Building of mountain barriers consequent to plate tectonics quite often lead to isolation and speciation, and connecting landmasses via land bridges that allow for species migration and exchange.
These movements of tectonic plates also drive global climate shifts, influencing the distribution and evolution of life.
Let us delve deeper into the tectonic impact on geomorphology and its impact on species and biodiversity.
- Continental drift and habitat formation:
As continents separate, new continental margins are created during movement of tectonic plates, it creates potential habitats and spurring diversification.
- Continental collision &new merged habitat formation:
When the tectonic plates collide, previously separated landmasses can merge again. This may lead to competition between new species and that occupied similar niches in isolation.
- Land bridges formation & migration
Plate tectonics can cause sea levels to drop, forming land bridges that connect continents. This new land bridges facilitate migration of species between the continents. A famous example is the Bering land bridge between Siberia and Alaska, which allowed many species, including early humans, to migrate between continents.
- Isolation and speciation
The formation of mountain ranges through plate collisions may function as a physical barrier leading to isolation or separating populations and thus preventing gene flow. Over time, isolated populations can evolve independently as new species through a process called allopatric speciation.
The separation of continents and the formation of ocean basins can act as another kind of barriers driving marine and terrestrial diversification.
- Climate change and species composition
Plate tectonics influence global climate patterns drastically by changing ocean currents and creating mountain ranges that affect atmospheric circulation.
The global climate patterns in turn affects the types of habitats available for organisms. The fossil records elucidate how climate changes drive changes in species composition and distribution.
- New ecosystems formation
Geological changes such as the creation of mid-ocean ridges, oceanic trenches, and volcanic island arcs due to tectonic movements eventually lead to the formation of new habitats and ecosystems.
The subsequent cooling and sinking of oceanic crust can displace seawater, causing global sea levels to rise.
- Evolutionary patterns of populations from variance
The splitting of a continuous population by the formation of a physical barrier such as mountains, ocean basins etc. is called vicariance. This can lead to the evolutionary divergence of populations on either side of the barrier.
- Plate tectonics function as Rift and collision pumps:
Plate tectonics can be described as a “rift pump” as it increases biodiversity through isolation. It functions as a “collision pump” that enhances competition between new & existing species when continents collide. In either way plate tectonics impacts on biodiversity.
- Acceleration of evolution:
The separation and collision of continents compel species to adapt to new environments created.
This can lead to new evolutionary paths or extinctions.
The dynamic changes impacted by plate tectonics, including the creation and destruction of habitats, can accelerate the pace of biological evolution.
Fossil studies reveal that plate tectonics have been associated with profound biogeographical consequences, such as isolation and speciation. Eventually geologically isolated species may emerge as a new species in the new ecosystem. Similarly, another type of collision of tectonic plates may merge isolated continents forming ridges or land bridges. Now this may cause competition between existing and newly joined species and gradual extinction.
The impact of plate tectonics on biodiversity and climate is evident in the fossil record of animals with Gondwanan affinities in India and Madagascar.
The collision of continents can connect previously separated landmasses. The collision of India with Asia as per the fossil studies show that fossils of shared vertebrate groups found in both India and Madagascar, showing a link to the former supercontinent Gondwana.
A formation of the Isthmus of Panama allowed for the exchange of animals between North and South America.
conclusion
Plate tectonic is not the only cause that impacts biodiversity. Several other factors like global warming, human interventions and natural catastrophes such as volcanic eruptions and ocean currents play their own roles. However the tectonic movements have significant role in the evolutionary process of extinction as well as emergence of new species.
Written by dr sanjana p souparnika
December 13, 2025
Impact of plate tectonics on biogeography
Plate tectonics is defined as gliding over of tectonic plates of earth’s crust over its semi fluid asthenosphere. This movement of plates accounts for the formation of biogeography of earth with mountains, earthquakes, volcanoes, and the distribution of continents and oceans over millions of years.
Of late tectonic plates movements and the impact on biogeography is researched with unprecedented significance. Tectonic plates and their movement have pivotal role in the evolution of species including mankind. How?
The planet earth has tectonic plates over its surface and which are in constant motion. Their movement and collisions are associated with significant transformations in earth’s geological and oceanographic structures.
What are tectonic plates?
Tectonic plates are large, fragmented sections of Earth’s upper mantle and crust that cover the entire globe.These tectonic plates are in continuous movement and the movements and collisions lead to formation of huge mountains, and ocean trenches and various other geological features. These activity of tectonic plate happens at different intervals reshaping global geography over millions of years.
The term plate tectonics is derived from Latin word tectonicus or from Ancient Greek word tektonikos meaning ‘pertaining to building’
The tectonic plates on the surface of Earth on Lithosphere have been slowly moving since 3–4 billion years ago.Earth’s lithosphere, the rigid outer shell including the crust and upper mantle, is fractured into seven or eight major plates and many minor plates or “platelets”. The relative movement of the plates typically ranges from zero to 10 cm annually.
Tectonic plates are composed of the oceanic lithosphere and the thicker continental lithosphere, each topped by its own kind of crust.
What are plate boundaries?
Plate boundaries are formed by movement of different types of tectonic plates relative to each other. Tectonic plate movement range from 10 to 40 millimetres per year (0.4 to 1.6 in/year). Where the plates meet, their relative motion determines the type of plate boundary as convergent, divergent, or transform.
Three types of plate boundaries exist, characterized by the way the plates move relative to each other.
They are associated with different types of geomorphological changes& climate change.
1.Divergent boundaries (constructive boundaries or extensional boundaries).
These are boundaries where two plates slide apart from each other. This rifting may lead to the formation of new ocean basin.
At zones of ocean-to-ocean rifting, divergent boundaries form by seafloor spreading, allowing for the formation of new ocean basin.
2.Convergent boundaries (destructive boundaries or active margins)
These boundaries occur where two plates slide toward each other. The convergent boundaries may form either a subduction zone (one plate moving underneath the other) or a continental collision.
Subduction zones :
1.ocean-to-continent subduction, where the dense oceanic lithosphere plunges beneath the less dense continent plate.
2. ocean to ocean subduction
here older denser oceanic crust slips beneath less dense ocean
associated with subduction zones, and the basins that develop along the active boundary are often called “foreland basins”.
At zones of ocean-to-ocean subduction a deep trench forms in an arc shape. The upper mantle of the subducted plate then heats and magma rises to form curving chains of volcanic islands e.g. the Aleutian Islands, the Mariana Islands, the Japanese island arc.
At zones of ocean-to-continent subduction mountain ranges form, e.g. the Andes, the Cascade Range.
Continental collision zones:
At continental collision zones two masses of continental lithospheres are converging. As they are of similar density, neither is subducted.
The plate edges are compressed, folded, and uplifted forming mountain ranges, e.g. Himalayas and Alps. Closure of ocean basins can occur at continent-to-continent boundaries.
3.Transform boundary
Transform boundaries (conservative boundaries or strike-slip boundaries) occur where plates are neither created nor destroyed. Instead, two plates slide, or precisely they grind past each other, along transform faults.
Strong earthquakes may happen along a fault. The San Andreas Fault in California is an example of a transform boundary exhibiting dextral motion.
In addition to these three boundaries other plate boundary zones occur where the effects of the interactions are not very clear.
Geomorphological consequences of tectonic plate movements
It is intriguing to understand that plate tectonics affects climate patterns, ocean currents, and the evolution of species.
The boundaries where tectonic plates interact are risky zones of increased volcanic and seismic activity. Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes are common in these zones.
Earthquakes do occur when tectonic plates slip past each other, while volcanoes form where plates collide and one dives under the other (subduction), or where plates pull apart (divergent movement).
Along convergent plate boundaries,as the process of subduction carries the edge of one plate down under the other plate and into the mantle there is reduction in the total surface area (crust) of Earth. The lost surface at one boundary is balanced by the formation of new oceanic crust along divergent margins by seafloor spreading[ divergence] and thus keeping the total surface area constant in a tectonic “conveyor belt”.
The mankind has always amazed at the formation of huge mountain ranges since time immemorial. Study of tectonic plate movements unraveled this mystery to man a few decades ago. The tectonic plates can collide with each other and the forceful collision cause the land to be forced upward, creating mountain ranges. Similarly, divergence when happens on oceanic plates it leads to formation of new ocean basin. ocean-to-ocean subduction leads to the formation of deep marine trenches typically.
Impact of plate tectonics on global climate
Over millions of years, the continents have drifted apart and have come together, creating new oceans and continents.
These movements of tectonic plates affect global climate by influencing ocean currents, which distribute heat around the planet. Mountains formed by tectonics can also affect regional climates and function as important sinks for carbon dioxide.
Impact of tectonic plate movement on evolution
The separation and collision of continents compel species to adapt to new environments created.
This can lead to new evolutionary paths or extinctions.
Impact on marine environment
The formation of new ocean ridges may happen from plate tectonics. The subsequent cooling and sinking of oceanic crust can displace seawater, causing global sea levels to rise.
Beyond earthquakes and volcanoes, plate tectonics can contribute to tsunamis and landslides.
According to a hypothesis proposed by Robert Stern and Taras Gerya, plate tectonics are a necessary criterion for a planet to be able to sustain complex life as they play a key role in regulating the carbon cycle.
Continental drift theory helps biogeographers to explain the disjunct biogeographic distribution of present-day life found on different continents.
December 3, 2025
Bhedaghat & Dhuandhar falls of Narmada river.
It is a famous tourist destination in Jabalpur district well known for its incredible natural beauty, marble situated on the sides of the Narmada River which flows through the gorge.
Bhedaghat has a famous water falls known as Dhuandhar Falls. Bhedaghat has been added on UNESCO list of natural world heritage sites.
Location:
Bhedaghat is located in Jabalpur district in the state of Madhya Pradesh, India. It is situated by the side of river Narmada and is approximately 20 km from Jabalpur city.
Narmada river is the 5th longest river in India and the longest west-flowing river in the country. It is also the largest flowing river in the state of Madhya Pradesh. It is one of the rivers in India that flows in a rift valley, bordered by the Satpura and Vindhya ranges. The source of the Narmada is a small reservoir, known as the Narmada Kund, located at Amarkantak in the Anuppur District [Madhya Pradesh].
Narmada -Through the veil of myths & beliefs
In Indian subcontinent landscapes and rivers have a sacred linking with mythology. Narmada River is not an exception and which is considered as a goddess as well as a river in Hindu mythology. The Matsya Purana states that all of the banks along the Narmada are sacred.
According to Hindu mythological stories and legends the Narmada was created from Shiva’s perspiration while he was performing penance on Mount Riksha and therefore the Narmada River is considered as Shiva’s daughter.
As per another legend, the river Narmada has a different story of origin. The two teardrops fell from the eyes of Brahma [ the creator of the universe] started flowing as two rivers – the Narmada and the Son River.
The pebbles of Narmada River also speak a story of mythological linking. Narmada Riverbeds’ pebbles are known as banalinga. The pebbles are made up of white quartz and are linga shaped [ Shiv linga]. They are believed to be the personified form of Shiva.
The Narmada River is also worshipped as mother goddess Muktidayani, or liberating mother.
Dhuandhar Falls
The Narmada river descends from Sonmuda, then falls over a cliff as Kapildhara waterfall and meanders in the hills, flowing through a tortuous course crossing the rocks and islands up to the ruined palace of Ramnagar. The river then runs north–west in a narrow loop towards Jabalpur. Close to Jabalpur city , at Bedaghat the river forms Dhuander falls.
This waterfall is located on the Narmada River in Bhedaghat and the fall is 30 meters high. Dhuandhar waterfalls can be accessed from the east bank as well as the west bank of the Narmada River.
The Narmada River, making its way through the world-famous Marble Rocks, narrows down and then plunges into a waterfall known as Dhuandhar. The plunge creates a bouncing mass of mist. The waterfall creates a smoky atmosphere and hence it is known as Dhuander fall. The word ‘Dhuandhar’ is derived from two Hindi words Dhuan which means smoke and Dhar meaning flow.
This huge waterfall can be heard from a far distance as water plunges with intense force.
To view the other side of Dhuandhar Falls, cable car service is available at Bhedaghat. The ropeway facility starts from the east bank of the Narmada River, crosses the river and then drops tourists off at the river’s west bank
Bhedaghat a favourite shooting location for Hindi movie makers
Many famous and superhit movies have been shot in this hilly terrain.
The Hindi film Asoka was shot in Bhedaghat among the marble rocks by the Narmada River [2001].
The crocodile fight scenes of the Hindi film Mohenjo Daro also are shot at Bhedaghat[2016].
How to reach Bhedaghat?
The nearest railway station is Bhedaghat Railway station. It is possible to take a tempo (auto-rickshaw) from Jabalpur to Bhedaghat. Its distance from the main city is about 28 km. The nearest airport is Jabalpur.
References
April 3, 2025
Pachmarhi – The queen of Satpura
Pachmarhi is a hill station near the Satpura range of Mountains in Madhya Pradesh ,India. It is a treasure trove of rich history with its hilltop caves and is blessed immensely by it rich forests and water falls.
Pachmarhi is situated in a valley of the Satpura Range and is widely known as Satpura ki Rani or Queen of Satpura. Most of its land area is under the administration of the Pachmarhi Cantonment Board, which serves the Indian Army.
Location
Pachmarhi is a small hill station in Hoshangabad district of Madhya Pradesh state of central India. It has an altitude of 1067. Dhupgarh, the highest point (1,352 meters) in Madhya Pradesh and the Satpura range, is located close to it.The town is wholly located within the Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve and the Satpura Tiger Reserve.
Climate
The average temperature of this place is 21.7 °C and the average annual rainfall in is 2012 milimeters. May is the hottest month of the year, with an average temperature of 30.3 °C, while December is the coldest month of the year, with an average temperature of 15.5 °C.
Pachmarhi – The queen of Satpura
The hill station has a sacred linking with mythology through its hilltop caves which are well-known as the ‘Pandavs Caves’. According to a legend, these caves were built by five Pandava brothers of Mahabharatha era during their thirteen years of exile.
Pachmarhi is a year-round tourist destination due to its pleasant weather, however during monsoon and winter season accentuate the charm of its landscapes.
A tour through Pachmarhi may lead you to hill top cave temples and one of the prominent cave temples is Jata Shankar cave, deriving its name from the peculiar rock formation that looks like the matted dreadlocks [Jata] of Lord Shiva.
Dhupgarh is another viewpoint of the Satpura Range[highest point is 1,352 m] well known for its sunrise and sunsets. The night view also has its own exquisite aesthetic appeal with the glimmering lights of neighboring town Itarsi. The
Sangam, a conflux of mountain streams behind Dhupgarh flows incessantly with its crystal-clear water down the valleys in almost all seasons as silvery lines over the mountain ranges.
PanarPani is yet another natural freshwater lake of Pachmarhi with dense forest surrounding it.
The Chauragarh fort is also a widely known spot for sunrise viewing. During the festivities of Nagpanchami and Mahashivratri, devotees flock to Chauragarh temple in large numbers, leaving about 2 lakh trishuls as offerings to Lord Shiva which are kept in front of the temple and also on the way to the temple.
Some of the important places to visit in Pachmarhi
Rajat Prapat waterfall
Bee Fall
Bada Mahadev
Gupt Mahadev
Chauragarh (visited by devotees during Mahashivratri)
Dhupgarh (the highest peak of the Satpura range)
Handi Khoh (deep valley)
Apsara Falls (fairy pool)
Jata shankar cave (stalagmite-filled cave in a deep ravine)
Dutchess Fall
Pachmarhi Hill
Pansy Pool
Waters Meet
Picadilly Circus
Patharchatta
Crumps Crag
Lady Robertson’s View
Colletin Crag
Mount Rosa
Reechgarh
Rajendra Giri gardens
Bansri Vihar
Little Fall
Naagdwari
Draupadi Kund
Twynham Pool
Chhota Mahadev
Nandigad
History of Pachmarhi
The ancient history of this region is still obscure as a mountain range which was less inhabited by people. It is known that the hill station was connected with the Bhonsle Kingdom and was later ruled by the Marathas in the 18th century.
It was later part of the Gondi kingdom of Bhagvat Singh in the 19th century, although there was no permanent settlement at that time.
The Chauragarh fort was built by king Sangram Shah of the Gond dynasty. It was developed by SenaSahebSubha Janoji Maharaj of Nagpur। from the Maratha Era the Pilgrimage from Nagpur Start।.
The origins of modern Panchmarhi can be traced back to 1857, when Captain James Forsyth of the British Army and Subhedar Major Nathoo Ramji Powar noticed the plateau while en route to Jhansi. It quickly developed into a hill station and sanatorium for British troops in the Central Provinces of India, and Powar was made Kotwal or army chief of the locality.
Pachmarhi biosphere reserve
It is a UNESCO listed Biosphere reserve with its rich flora and fauna. The total area of Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve is 4981.72 km2. The reserve spans parts of three civil districts, viz; Hoshangabad (59.55%), Chhindwara (29.19%) and Betul (11.26%)
UNESCO added the Pachmarhi area to its list of Biosphere Reserves in May 2009, due to the many rare plant species in the vicinity. It includes three wildlife conservation units – Bori Sanctuary 485.72 km2), Satpura National Park (524.37 km2) and Pachmarhi Sanctuary (491.63 km2)
The Satpura Tiger Reserve contains several large mammal species, including the tiger, leopard, wild boar, gaur (Bos gaurus), chital deer (Axis axis), muntjac deer, sambar deer (Cervus unicolor), and rhesus macaques.
The endemic fauna also includes chinkara, nilgai, wild dogs, the Indian wolf, bison, Indian giant squirrels, and flying squirrels.
The biosphere reserve includes fruit trees such as mangoes, jamun, custard fruit, and lesser-known local fruits such as khatua, tendu, chunna, khinni, and chaar. Oak and blue pine are also found here abundantly. the forest is also known for having many medicinal plants and herbs.
Waterfalls of Pachmarhi
Silver Falls or Rajat Prapat, is falling from a height of 350 feet and looks like a silver strip when sunlight falls on it, hence is called Silver Falls.
Apsara Vihar Falls is just a 10-minute downhill trail and one of the most beautiful falls in Pachmarhi. It is believed that during the British era, beautiful British women used to bathe here and the locals thought of them to be apsaras and hence the pool was named Apsara Vihar.
Bee Falls or the Jamuna Prapat is the most magnificent waterfall and is just 5 km from the Pachmarhi bus stand. Cascading down from a height of 150 feet, the fall is named as such because from a distance the waterfall sounds like a bee as the water flows through the rocks and makes a buzzing sound.
How to reach Pacmarhi?
The nearest airport is Raja Bhoj Airport in Bhopal (around 222 km) which has daily flight services from Delhi and Mumbai and 13 major cities of India.
Cabs are available from Bhopal to Pachmarhi. Jabalpur airport to Pachmarhi is also just 300 km
Pachmarhi is just 54km by road from the Pipariya railway station. Several direct trains link Pipariya with important cities of India.
If one want to travel by road many state-owned and private buses are available for Pachmarhi from nearby cities like Bhopal, Jabalpur, Nagpur, Indore.
Stay & Accommodation
The hill station has numerous hotels and resorts.
Refereces
March 27, 2025
Sharavati river basin
Sharavati river
Sharavati is one of the well known rivers flowing through Karnataka state ,India and major part of the river basins lies in the western ghats.
Sharavati river flows through Shivamogga and Uttara Kannada districts of Karnataka. The river is around 128 km long and it joins the Arabian Sea at Honnavar in Uttara Kannada district.
On its way to Arabian Sea, the Sharavati forms the Jog Falls [ in Siddapur taluk ,Uttarakannada district] where the river falls from a height of 253 m.
The river is dammed at Linganamakki. This part of the river above the dam is upstream and the remaining is downstream. The Linganamakki dam located in the Sagar taluk has a length of 2.4 km and was constructed across the Sharavati river in 1964.
The major tributaries of the river are Nandihole, Haridravathi, Mavinahole, Hilkunji, Yennehole, Hurlihole, and Nagodihole
Origin of the river and myth

Indian geography and landscapes are intricately connected with mythology, epics and religious sentiments of the country. As Diana .L. Huc describes in her book ‘ India a sacred geography ‘ each and every landscapes including rivers, mountains and forests of this land are elaborately linked to the stories of gods & heroes of myths & epics. The Sharavati river also is not an exception to this sacred connection.
Sharavati originates at a place called Ambutheertha in the Thirthahalli taluk. According to ancient legend, the Hindu god Rama [ Of epic Ramayana] shot at the ground with his Ambu (arrow) to quench the thirst of his consort sita devi. When his arrow hit the ground, water[ Thirtha] poured out. This location of origin of the River is known as thirthahalli [ which translates into” A hamlet of water”]. The river which originated from an arrow later known as “Sharavati” as “Shara” translates to arrow.
Indian subcontinent has an amazing number of myths and legends, rituals and festivities connected with its geography & landscape. It denotes that ancient people of India had given supreme reverence to nature and regarded everything they received from nature as gifts of God. In Indian subcontinent the landscapes are not only connected with Hinduism, but also they have been linked to Buddhism, Jainism and various other religions of the subcontinent. If the historical geography of any particular landscape is studied it may point out that the rivers, mountains and other landscapes were part of many literary documents.
Sharavati river basin- Climate, Biodiversity ,Wild life
The river basin lies in Uttara Kannada and Shivamogga districts of Karnataka,India. The Sharavati river basin gets a large amount of rainfall. Mean annual rainfall ranges from 6000 mm in the western side to 1700 mm in the eastern side of the basin. Monsoon in July fills the river abundantly.
Generally the climate is cool [22.2degree Celsius]. Humidity exceeds 75% for most times of the year. During the months of monsoon, the relative humidity during the afternoons is approximately 60%.
The Sharavati river basin is rich in biodiversity. In a survey conducted in the basin, 23 amphibians belonging to the families of Bufonidae, Ichthyophiidae, Microhylidae, Ranidae and Rhacophoridae were recorded.
The Sharavati waters contain a few special species of fishes which are named after the river.These include:
Batasio sharavatiensis: A bagrid catfish discovered near Jog Falls, Uttara Kannada district.
Schistura sharavatiensis: A fish species discovered in Sharavati river near Algod, Shimoga district.
Two new species of diatoms were also discovered from Hirebhaskeri Dam of Sharavati River in 2011.
A part of the Sharavati river basin was declared as a wildlife sanctuary on 20 April 1972
Sharavati wildlife sanctuary
The river basin is home to many species of plants and animals. Due to the presence of rich biodiversity a part of the Sharavati river basin was declared as a wildlife sanctuary on 20 April 1972. The wild life sanctuary is spread over an area of 431.23 km2 , it has dense evergreen and semi-evergreen forests. The vegetation here ibnclude evergreen, semi-green and some moist deciduous forests.
Trees in the evergreen forest include species such as Dipterocarpus indicus, Calophyllum tomentosum, Machilus macrantha, Caryota urens and Aporosa lindleyana. In the semi-evergreen and moist deciduous forests, common species include Lagerstroemia lanceolata, Hopea parviflora, Dalbergia latifolia, Dillenia pentagyna, Careya arborea, Emblica officinalis, Randia sp., Terminalia sp. and Vitex altissima.
The altitude in the sanctuary varies from 94 m to 1102 m, the highest point being Devarakonda on the southern edge of the sanctuary.
Linganamakki reservoir
Linganamakki reservoir, with an area of 128.7 km2 , is a part of this sanctuary. The remaining area has been divided into core zone (74.33 km2.), buffer zone (170.67 km2) and tourism zone (57.53 km2). Honnemaradu is an island on the reservoir formed by the Linganamakki dam. It is located in the Sagar taluk of Shimoga district. This place is popular for water sports, such as canoeing, kayaking and wind surfing.
The wild life including the animal species is varied in the sanctuary. It is home to the endangered lion-tailed macaque. Other mammals include tiger, leopard (black panther), wild dog, jackal, sloth bear, spotted deer, sambar, barking deer, mouse deer, wild boar, common langur, bonnet macaque, Malabar giant squirrel, giant flying squirrel, porcupine, otter and pangolin.
Reptiles are also part of the wildlife here and include king cobra, python, rat snake, crocodile and monitor lizard. Sharavati river basin wild life sanctuary has numerous birds also. Some of the avian species include hornbill, paradise flycatcher, racket-tailed drongo and Indian lories and lorikeets.
How to reach Sharavati river basin?
Nearest airport is Mangalore international airport. The distance by road from Manglore to sharavati is 200km. You can also reach from Bangalore airport.[274km].
References
- A Walk on the Wild Side, An Information Guide to National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries of Karnataka, Compiled and Edited by Dr. Nima Manjrekar, Karnataka Forest Department, Wildlife Wing, October 2000
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharavati
October 20, 2024