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Category: Landscape

  • Mount Kailash – The unclimbed sacred mountain of Himalayas

    Mount Kailash, the sacred mountain peak [6,638 m] located in Tibet’s Ngari Prefecture is a world-famous pilgrim centre of Himalayas, revered by believers of Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Bon followers. It is visited for circumambulation of the mountain and ritualistic bath in nearby lake Manasarovar by thousands of people every year.

    Kailash -The unclimbed sacred mountain

       Mount Kailash with its snow cladded peaks, worshipped as the centre of universe amazes the world for millions of years as a serene destination where devotees experience the fulfilment of soul’s journey.

     This unclimbed sacred mountain is located in Tibet in the western Trans Himalayas near Manasarovar Lake and Rakshastal. It is regarded as a symbol of spirituality and sacredness for Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Bon religion of Tibet.

      Mount Kailash [6638m] located in Tibet’s Ngari Prefecture is revered by Bon followers as a divine abode and the center of the universe. It is located near Lakes Manasarovar and Rakshastal.

        The word ‘Kailash’ is derived from sanskrit kailasa or kelasa which means crystal. Pilgrims from China, India, Nepal, and other countries visit mount Kailash for a circumambulation of the universe. Each circumambulation is a representation of fulfilling a life-death cycle.

     On the way to mount Kailash one can see numerous stupas, flag poles, Buddhist monasteries and praying stations. Many  of the ancient cultural artifacts were vandalized during the Cultural Revolution of China from 1966 to 1976.

     The vestiges of the artifacts visible on both sides, on your journey in quest of divine power of Kailash, may tell you the stories of civilizations and cultures of bygone era  sleeping in this land.

    Manasarovar lake has been considered holy since time immemorial and Hindus take a ritual bath in the Manasarovar before doing circumambulation of mount Kailash. Manasarovar is the highest freshwater lake in the world.

    According to Skanda Purana scripts “There are no mountains like the Himalaya, for in them are Kailas and Manasarovar. As the dew is dried up by the morning Sun, so are the sins of mankind dried up by the sight of the Himalaya

    In Tibet, the mount Kailash is also known as Gang Rinpoche which means “snow jewel mountain”. Tibetan Buddhists call kailash as Kangri Rinpoche which means ‘Precious Snow Mountain’.

    According to Tibetan religious texts of Bons Mount Kailash is known by several names such as Water’s Flower, Mountain of Sea Water, Nine Stacked Swastikas Mountain.

    Till date Kailash Mountain peak remains unclimbed and climbing the mountain is prohibited by law due to its religious significance

    Mount Kailash through the veil of myths &legends;

        According to Hindu puranas and mythology texts Kailash is the centre of Universe, the home of Lord Shiva and goddess Parvati and their children. The mountain has been referred as mount Meru in Hindu scriptures and texts. Mount Meru represents stairway to heaven, where the devas reside.

    The Vishnu Purana states that it lies in the centre of the world surrounded by six mountain ranges similar to a lotus, one of which is the Himalayas.

    Kailash is intricately woven with the Jainism also as the first leader of Jains got enlightenment in this mountain. According to Jain scriptures, Rishabhadeva, the first Tirthankar of Jainism attained moksha (liberation) on Mount Kailash. Later Rishabhadeva’s son emperor Bharata Chakravartin had constructed three stupas and twenty-four shrines of the 24 tirthankaras in the region. He also performed a fortnight of worship termed Mahamaga and attained salvation from Kailash.

      Buddhists believe that Mount Kailash is the navel of the universe. Buddhist texts describe Mount Kailash (Kailasa) as the mythological Mount Meru. Kailash is central to its cosmology, and a major pilgrimage site for some Buddhist traditions. Kailash and Manasarovar are considered as fatherly and motherly symbols in Buddhist tradition. Many destinations in the region are associated with Padmasambhava, the pioneer of Tantric Buddhism in Tibet in the 8th century CE.

    Tibetan Buddhist pilgrims often chant Om mani padme hum (jewel in the lotus) and sing nyelu songs while crossing the Dolma La pass which are believe to proclaim a fraternity amongst all pilgrims who cross paths on a Kailash pilgrimage. Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, Bon followers  converge as one entity of faith in the centre of the universe at mount Kailash.

    Mount kailash is of supreme reverence for believers of Bon religion of Tibet also. For the Bons, the mountain is the abode of sky goddess Sipaimen and the mountain was the centre of the ancient Bon empire of Zhang Zhung. The followers of Bon religion of Tibet believe that the mountain is the abode of the sky goddess Sipaimen.

    Geographical location

    Mount Kailash is located in Ngari Prefecture, Tibet the Autonomous Region of China.

    It is situated in the Gangdise Shan (also known as Kailash Range) of the Transhimalaya, in the western part of the Tibetan Plateau. The Mount Kailash peak is at an elevation of 6,638 m.

     A few culturally significant rivers take origin from the western Gangdise Mountains and they include the Yarlung Tsangpo (which later becomes the Brahmaputra), the Indus, the Sutlej and the Ghaghara, a tributary of the Ganges. All these major rivers arise within a 60 km stretch in the region.

    Mount Kailash is located on the banks of Manasarovar and Rakshastal lakes. Spread over an area of 320 km2.

    Geology of mount Kailash

    The  geological analysis may show that mount kailash is  a metasedimentary roof pendant supported by a base of granite. The collision of India and Asia resulted in folding, faulting, and heating of sedimentary basins. The area is a “roof pendant” or uplifted block of rock where deep crustal rocks (granites) and ocean-floor sediments (sedimentary rocks) are now exposed together at high altitudes.

    The Indus headwaters area is typified by wide-scale faulting of metamorphosed late-Cretaceous to mid-Cenozoic sedimentary rocks interspersed with igneous Cenozoic granitic rocks. The headwaters are situated along the Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone (ITSZ), where the Indian Plate collided with the Eurasian Plate. The igneous rocks are formed by the cooling of magma (molten rock) deep within the Earth’s crust during the Cenozoic era.

    The Cenozoic rocks represent offshore marine limestones deposited before subduction of the Tethys oceanic crust.

    Climate in the mount Kailash region

    In summer the weather is fairly dry and during April to June the day time temperatures are in the range 5 to 17 °C (41 to 63 °F) and night time temperatures of 0 to 6 °C (32 to 43 °F). The region is cool even in summer.

    But in the winter starting from October the temperature falls down to the freezing point ranging from −4 to 0 °C (25 to 32 °F) and further lower in the night reaching up to −20 °C (−4 °F). January is the coolest month and is covered with snow and glaciers in the Trans Himalayan region.

    Monsoon rain begins from the end of June to August accompanied by freezing cold winds.

    The temperature and weather of Trans Himalayas and mount Kailash are transforming under the impact of global warming as in other part of the globe. The rising temperature poses devastating impact on

     The retreating glaciers and thawing of the permafrost in the Tibet region may have impact on water resources.

     Furthermore, population explosion, pollution and tourism have adversely impacted the fragile ecosystem around Mount Kailash.

    Pilgrimage to the sacred abode of Shiva – Kailash

    It is unclear in the history when mount Kailash rose to the status of a sacred destination for pilgrimage. In the Indian subcontinent the sacred linking of landforms with divinity is evident since antiquity. In the Himalayan region crossing the borders also this tradition of sacred linking of myths is evident. Mount Kailash and other temples, monasteries in the valley testify for that.

    Mount Kailash is revered as the abode of Hindu lord Shiva and by other religious sects as center of the universe.

    The pilgrimage to mount Kailash involves trekking towards Lake Manasarovar and a circumambulation of Mount Kailash. The path around Mount Kailash is 53 km long. There are many stupas, flag poles, Buddhist monasteries and praying stations along the route.

    The circumambulation usually begins and ends at Darchen, a small outpost located at an elevation of 4,670 m.

      Each circumambulation of mount Kailash is symbolic of a fulfilled a life-death cycle.

     Hindus take a ritual bath in the Manasarovar before doing circumambulation. The circumambulation is made in a clockwise direction by Hindus, Buddhists, and Jains, while Bonpos circumambulate the mountain in a counterclockwise direction. But setting foot on the slopes of the mountain or attempting to climb it is forbidden by law due to the religious significance of the mountain.

    Religious pilgrimages to Mount Kailas and Manasarovar were allowed by China after its occupation of Tibet in 1950-51.

    While pilgrimage from India was guaranteed by the 1954 Sino-Indian Agreement, access was restricted after the subsequent 1959 Tibetan uprising and the borders were closed after the Sino-Indian War in 1962.

     After a pause of  around two decades pilgrimage from India  to Mount Kailash was resumed in 1981 after an agreement between the governments of India and China.

    Later in 2020 the pandemic covid shut the route to mount Kailash and Manasarovar for around three successive years.

    The route was re-opened in 2023 with new regulations.

    How can you make a pilgrimage to mount kailash? [Kailash manasarovar yatra]

    The pilgrimage or journey to mount Kailash is facilitated by Govt of India since 2015. The pilgrim tourists may have to apply in advance to the Ministry of External Affairs and specific number of passes will be issued to them  and preference given to those who are visiting for the first time visitors.

    In India, the applications are to be submitted for Kailash manasarovar yatra from June and September.

    Pilgrims from India travel through two routes : with border crossings at Lipu Lekh pass in Uttarakhand and the Nathu La pass in Sikkim.

     Visit mount Kailash from Nepal

    Since 2015, the pilgrimage from Nepal is conducted through the Humla district in northwestern Nepal. Mount Kailash is visible from the Lapcha La pass above the Limi valley also.

     Another route exists through the crossing at Rasuwa-Gyirong. Pilgrims could reach Lhasa by air before the journey to Lake Manasarovar.

    The pilgrimage to mount Kailash involves trekking towards Lake Manasarovar and a circumambulation of Mount Kailash. The path around Mount Kailash is 53 km long.

    The circumambulation usually begins and ends at Darchen, a small outpost located at an elevation of 4,670 m.

    Trekking around the mountain can be made on foot with the help of a pony or domestic yak. The circumambulation takes three days on average with the first day trek from Darchen to Dirapuk gompa for about 14 km. The journey is resumed from Dirpauk to Zutulphuk via the Drolma pass for 19 km on the second day and the final day trekking back to Darchen .

    The mystery of unclimbed mountain.

    Mount Kailash had amazed many travellers on expeditions in the past centuries. In the beginning there were attempts by some trekking enthusiasts to climb the mountain. But adverse weather, snow fall paused hindrances and they abandoned the idea of trekking on the mountain. Later due to the growing religious significance and sacredness assigned by believers to the mountain, attempts to climb mount Kailash is forbidden by law.

    written by dr sanjana p souparnika

    image courtesy freepik.com

  • The orogeny of Himalayas – Impact on ecosystem &climate

    The Himalayan orogeny or mountain formation is an ongoing process began from Cenozoic era from collision of tectonic plates and it had profound impact on the climate and ecosystem of the region.

    Himalayas – the evolution

      The Himalayan orogeny is a complex process of mountain building that happened through millions of years and is still ongoing. This article by dr sanjana p souparnika is an in-depth study of the evolution of Himalayas, the majestic mountain ranges over the centuries.

     The word “orogeny” is derived from Greek and it means “mountain creation”. Orogeny is the primary geological process of mountain building happening through the collision of tectonic plates on the earth’s crust at convergent margins. This collision leads to intense folding, faulting, and crustal thickening processes. It lifts, deforms, and metamorphoses crustal material to create huge mountain ranges like the Himalayas. The Himalayas were formed around 50-100 million years ago in the Cenozoic era.

     

    Himalayan orogeny deciphers the evolution of species

       The formation of Himalayas began roughly 50–70 million years ago and the Himalayan stratigraphic study of rocks may decipher plate tectonic movements in the geological time scale along with changes in climate and biodiversity in the region around Himalayas. This can throw light into the history of evolution of earth & its ecosystems over billions of years.

     The collision of the Indian and Eurasian continental plates paved way for the Himalayan  mountain building and still it is ongoing. This collision vanished the Tethys ocean[ an ancient ocean] resulting in intense folding, faulting, and crustal thickening, ultimately forming the Himalayas.

       The Cenozoic Era is the current and most recent geological era, spanning from 66 million years ago to the present day. It is also known as the “Age of Mammals”. We must remember that only 2.6 million years ago humans appeared on the surface of earth from hominids through the evolutionary process. The Homo Sapiens emerged precisely in the quaternary period of coenozic era, in the Pleistocene epoch around 300,000 years ago. In that sense, Himalayas being the youngest mountain ranges formed in the Cenozoic era has profoundly influenced the climate and ecosystems and emergence of human species.

     Himalayan rock stratigraphic studies unveil the influence of mountain ranges in the evolution of human species. The rapid uplift of Himalayan mountain ranges as a result of collision of tectonic plates created new ecological niches.  Ecological niches are specific environmental requirement of a species within an ecosystem such as habitat, food sources etc. that help survival and reproduction. These niches acted as a “species pumps” that instigated significant evolutionary changes through diversification, and vicariance of Asian fauna and flora.

     When an ecological niche is empty with no living organisms, particularly after a new landform creation or extinction, it acts as a “pump” that attracts new species into it.  The niches, allowing for the evolution of specialized, endemic species.

    However, it is to be noted that, according to the competitive exclusion principle, two species with identical niches cannot coexist; one species may compete with the other, eventually leading to extinction. Nevertheless, nearly identical species clusters may co-occur sometimes.

     In short When niches are differentiated, they reduce competition between species and fosters coexistence of similar species.

    Himalayan mountain uplift enhanced biodiversity

     The orogeny of Himalayas has immensely impacted the biodiversity through intense topographic and climatic changes.

     Himalayas created diverse habitats, stimulating diversification and rapid evolution of species of fauna and flora. Diversification is the evolutionary process where species adapt to fill specific roles in an ecosystem, reducing competition and increasing biodiversity.

     The newly formed mountain ranges created physical barriers, fragmenting populations and leading to allopatric speciation through vicariance. vicariance denotes a scenario where a species is divided by a geographical barrier may adapt to slightly different environmental conditions. The passive splitting of a species’ range, often due to geological changes such as mountain uplift, continental drift or climatic changes lead to vicariance. This process has crucial role in allopatric speciation. Here the physical isolation of the species in a new ecological niche leads to genetic and phenotypic divergence. Himalayan niches thus grow as great biodiversity spots.

    The uplift of Himalayan ranges intensified the South Asian Monsoon, which had impacted the regional climate and determined the expansion or contraction of habitats facilitating species movement and adaptation. The sudden uplift of mountains leads to environmental shifts either species adapting to the terrains or becoming extinct.

    Himalayas- phases of orogeny

    Himalayan mountain building phases

    The Himalayan mountain range and Tibetan plateau have been formed from the collision between the Indian Plate and Eurasian Plate which happened around 40 and 50 million years ago. The tectonic plate movement and orogeny is still ongoing moving the plates towards north every year slightly.

      The Himalayas are denoted as the youngest mountain chain in the world. Himalayan mountains have come out of the Tethys Sea and that the uplift has taken place in different phases.

    During Permian Period (250) million years ago, there was a supercontinent known as Pangaea. Its northern part included present-day North America and Eurasia (Europe and Asia) which is called as Laurasia. The southern part of Pangaea consisted of present-day South America, Africa, South India, Australia, and Antarctica and together it was called Gondwanaland.

    Between Laurasia and Gondwanaland,existed a long, narrow, and shallow sea known as the Tethys Sea with several tributaries of rivers flowing into it. Sediments from these rivers flowed in and deposited on the floor of the Tethys Sea.

    Then the powerful compression due to the northward movement of the Indian Plate compressed the sediments of the sea bed. This resulted in the folding of sediments. As the Indian plate began plunging beneath the Eurasian plate, these sediments were further folded and uplifted resulting in the formation of Himalayas. Later the folded sediments, underwent weathering and erosional activity which sculpted it as the present-day Himalayas.

     The genesis of Indo-Gangetic plain was due to the consolidation of alluvium brought down by the rivers flowing from the Himalayas.

      Still the summit of Mount Everest is made of marine limestone from this ancient ocean tethys. Tibetan plateau was formed due to up thrusting of the southern block of the Eurasian Plate.

    The movement of tectonic plate is an ongoing process happening even today.  India is moving northwards at the rate of about five cm per year and crashing into the remaining part of Asia.

    The curved shape of the Himalayas convex to the south is because of the maximum force occurred at two ends of the Indian Peninsula during its northward drift.

     The orogeny of Himalayas into the current landform happened through 6 phases.

    6 phases involved in the formation of Himalayas

    Phase 1 – 100 million years ago

    Phase 2 – 71 million years ago

    Phase 3 – The Drass volcanic arc

    Phase 4 – Greater Himalayas were raised

    Phase 5 – Rise of lesser Himalayas

    Phase 6 – Rise of the Shiwalik ranges

    Phase 1

    The first phase of formation of Himalayas began 100 million years ago During Cretaceous Period, around 100 million years ago, the Indian plate was located b/w 10 ⁰ S – 40 ⁰ S, over the reunion hotspot. The movement of the plate gathered its mass velocity as it was closer to the equator (14cm/yr) and compression of sediment bed of the Tethys  sea started towards the end of the Paleocene.

    Phase 2

     The second phase of Himalayan orogeny began around 71 million years ago as the plate with Gondwana land drifted towards North East and the rigid Northwestern ridge composed of the Aravalli series collided with Eurasia.

    The line of collision b/w the Tibetan Plateau and the Indian Plate is called Indus–Tsangpo Suture Zone which is a compressional tectonic fault line.

    As the plate began to subduct, crustal doubling below Tibet raised them into a high plateau with a thickness of around 60km

    Along the southern front of the Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone, the Murree Foredeep was formed and further south, the Shiwalik foredeep was created.

    Phase 3 – The Drass volcanic arc

    During Oligocene period of Cenozoic era, the Drass volcanic area was formed and in the Tethys crust, a series of volcanic eruptions took place. It is situated in the Indus suture zone as an island arc on Neo- Tethys Ocean crust during cretaceous period[ 84-125 million years ago]

    The plate has started anti-clock rotation and Drass became the Pivotal Axis. Thus, in the western part, pressure and compression were gradually released but towards the East, compression of Tethyan sediments has started which marks the beginning of the rising of Tethyan Himalayas. As the Indian plate pushed north 71-50 million years ago the sedimentary stack was thrust southward.The Tethys Himalayas originated from the sedimentary basin underwent folding and transformation during the period of compression.

    Phase 4 – Greater Himalayas were raised.

    The continuous rotation and greater compression created a major thrust in the sediments of Murree foredeep and greater Himalayas were raised about 30-35 million years ago (Oligocene to Eocene period]. The compressional thrust line is known as the Main Central Thrust (MCT). It is a 30-km-thick, medium- to high-grade metamorphic sequence of metasedimentary rocks which are interlocked by granites of Ordovician and early Miocene age.

    However, majority of the meta sediments of this area of mountain ranges are of late Proterozoic to early Cambrian age.

    The metasediments represent the metamorphic equivalents of the sedimentary series forming the base of the overlying “Tethys Himalaya“.

    Phase 5 – Rise of lesser Himalayas

    The sediments were being deposited in the Shiwalik foredeep and further movement in the plate formed the lesser Himalayas during the Miocene (15-20 million years ago.)

    MCT separates greater and lesser Himalayas and the compressional thrust line along which the lesser Himalayas were lifted is known as Boundary Thrust/Fault (MBT of MBF) line.

    Phase 6 – Rise of the Shiwalik ranges

    In the Shiwalik foredeep, sedimentation by the Himalayan rivers formed the molasse material. It forms the southern foothills of the Himalayan Range and is essentially composed of Miocene to Pleistocene molassic sediments derived from the erosion of the Himalaya.

    The partial feeding of the Shiwalik foredeep along the Himalayan Frontal Fault (HFF) led to the rise of the Shiwalik ranges which represent partially folded sedimentary range.

    These molasse deposits, known as the “Murree and Sivaliks Formations”, are internally folded and imbricated.

    Tethys Himalaya (TH) – A short narrative about the oldest mountain ranges of Himalayas

    Tethys Himalayas represents the ocean to mountain transformation and therefore the fossils of marine organisms are found on its higher peaks with in sedimentary rocks. This region is also referred to as Tibetan zone Himalayas which covers Zanskar range in Kashmir and Spiti basin in Himachal Pradesh extending to south Tibet.

    Tethys Himalayan region is located south of Indus Sangpo suture zone and north of Greater Himalayas. It is considered as the oldest parts of Himalayan range system. This zone of Himalayas originated from the seabed sediments of the ancient Tethys ocean [ an ancient ocean which got vanished by tectonic plates collision into huge mountain ranges of Himalayas].

    The Tethys Himalaya is an approximately 100-km-wide synclinorium or trough formed by strongly folded and imbricated, weakly metamorphosed sedimentary series. It is 2000km long geological tectonic zone north of the main Himalayan range.

    This zone has fossil remnants of northern margin of the Indian subcontinent.

     Several nappes [ sheet like body of rocks], known as the “North Himalayan Nappes”, have also been described within the Tethys Himalaya which is a syclinorium of folded poorly metamorphosed fossiliferous marine sedimentary rocks [over 500 million years old].

       Tethys mountain ranges give a stratigraphic record ranging from the Upper Proterozoic to the Eocene of fossils preserved within the sediments of the Tethys Himalaya. Stratigraphic analysis of Tethys Himalayan sediments yields important clues about the geological history of the northern continental margin of the Indian sub-continent. This mountain range gives implications about its Gondwanian evolution to its continental collision with Eurasia.

    written by dr sanjana p Souparnika

    image courtesy freepik.com

  • The Himalayas – biodiversity hotspot

       The Himalayas are biodiversity hotspots with exquisite flora &fauna and endangered species of animals & birds that have garnered increased attention from environmental scientists and nature lovers worldwide in recent decades.

    “The Himalayas” captivates the minds of the common man, affluent and the ascetic alike due to various reasons. The ethereal beauty of these colossal and magnificent mountain ranges captivates the human spirits, yet its profound, serene vales allure the ascetic. The grandeur of these ethereal mountain ranges captivates all who behold them.

       Beyond the aesthetic beauty and tranquility it offers, the Himalayas host a rich array of flora and fauna, including rare medicinal plants currently facing a high risk of extinction.

        Generally, the mountains encompass around 25% of the world’s terrestrial biodiversity and nearly half of the world’s recognized biodiversity ‘hotspots’ are present in the mountains.

    The Himalayas – biodiversity & ecosystem

     The Himalayan mountain ranges separate the Indian subcontinent from Tibetan plateau. These youngest mountain ranges cover an area of about 595,000 Km2 over 8 countries. The region contains over 10,000 plant species, over 300 mammal species, and 979 bird species, along with endemic flora and fauna.

    Himalayas – click to read more

     The Himalayas are home to many rare flowers and Orchids and cushion plants at 6100m height.

    Ermania himalayensis, one of the highest altitude flowering plants, is found at 6300 m on the slope. It is a unique small, dense, hair-covered cushion plant on scree slopes, thriving in extreme cold and dry conditions.

      Himalaya is home to Freshwater turtles and over1300 bird species.  The endangered bird species found in Himalayas include white eared night heron, grey crowned crocias,  orange necked patridge.

     Himalayas at its extreme altitude variations features diverse ecosystems from subtropical forests to alpine meadows.

     It is home to endangered species, including the Snow Leopard, Red Panda, Himalayan Tahr, and Himalayan Monal.

    Bengal tigers, Asian elephants, greater one-horned rhinoceros, and wild water buffalo also exist in the lower regions.

       The biodiversity of Himalayan region confronts severe threat from climate change, deforestation and, urbanization. The mountain ecosystems are very sensitive to climate change. Climatic conditions may change rapidly with elevation over relatively short horizontal distances, impacting quality &quantity of water resources, vegetation, ecosystems, and socio-economic settings.

    The Himalayas- biodiversity hotspot under threat

    The Himalayan ranges being a biogeographic region with an exceptional concentration of endemic species of plants & animals facing the threat of extinction from several factors operating in the region,is categorized as one of the prominent” biodiversity hotspots “on the globe.

    This huge, awe-inspiring mountain ranges extending over 8 countries, play a pivotal role in regulating the climate of the subcontinent acting as a massive climatic barrier. They are instrumental in blocking freezing, dry air from Central Asia in winter, resulting in a warmer, moderate climate.

    It’s a stark, shocking reality that Himalayas are under the threat of biodiversity loss &environmental pollution owing to multiple factors operating in the region.

    Himalayan landscapes have been altered, modified, and influenced by a large number of factors including climate change, intensified anthropogenic activities, trade etc. Several studies have reported the altered and modified landscapes, degrading biodiversity, altered plant phenology, and deteriorating ecosystem productivity in the region.

    According to research studies on Himalayan biodiversity, the shrinking of the cryosphere, land use for trading & construction activities, vegetation change and loss of biodiversity have adversely affected the ecosystem of the region.

    Habitat fragmentation, illegal wildlife trade, and unplanned urban expansion is killing the ecosystem of the Himalayas silently day by day.

    Impact of climate change on Himalayan Glaciers

     Climate change has deleterious impacts on the mountains and its valleys over the decades, causing gradual loss of biodiversity as well as poor quality of water emanating from the snow cladded mountains. In addition to climate change, several other factors contribute to the ecosystem damage in the Himalayan region.

     According to researchers Ren et al as per a study conducted in 2017, the region has experienced significant warming in recent decades, with the annual mean surface temperature increasing at about 0.11 °C per decade from 1901 to 2014.

    Annual precipitation trends using Global Land Monthly Precipitation (GLMP) and Global Land Daily (GLDP) data does not show any significant change over time.

    The Himalaya is warming at an alarming rate, probably three times higher than the global average. This may cause species to shift to higher elevations.

    • Thinning & retreat of Himalayan glaciers

       The cryosphere is the key component of the Himalayan ecosystem and several studies have documented the extent of climate change on it. The cryosphere encompasses the lakes, rivers, ice, snow cover, glaciers, ice caps, ice sheets, and frozen ground (permafrost) of the region. It is a critical component of the climate system that regulates global temperatures by reflecting solar radiation back into space.

    Several studies on Himalayan glaciers point out that the glaciers have retreated, thinned, and lost mass in many regions of the Himalayas.

    • Decreasing water content in snow cover

      Research data also indicates that there is a significant and widespread decrease in the water content of snow cover (Snow Water Equivalent – SWE). This reduction, often referred to as “snow drought,” is driven by rising global temperatures and shifting precipitation patterns from snow to rain.

     The Himalayan region is experiencing a critical “snow drought” in the earlier part of the current year 2026 with significantly reduced Snow Water Equivalent (SWE) and shrinking snow cover, particularly between 3,000m and 6,000m elevations.

    These factors have direct impact in reducing the amount of water stored over the winter. Water scarcity is the imminent threat challenging the future of the  vegetation, flora and fauna of the region.

    •  Permafrost degradation in Himalayan region

    Himalayan permafrost is experiencing rapid, unprecedented, and largely irreversible degradation due to global warming.

    Permafrost is ground—soil, rock, or sediment—that remains frozen at or below 0°C for at least two consecutive years, with some lasting for thousands of years. The permafrost degradation can have significant implications for regional infrastructure, water security, and risk of hazards.

      Studies indicate that a substantial amount of permafrost was lost in the Western Himalayas between the early 2000s and late 2010s, with the climate change associated to global warming.

    Recent studies have highlighted that over 60% of the high-altitude areas in specific regions, such as Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh, are underlain by permafrost, which is now actively degrading and it is unprecedented.

    As per global mountain glacier studies, decrease in snowpack water content alters the crucial insulation layer on the ground, causing severe ecological consequences.  

      Climate change is significantly altering plant phenology in the Himalayas, causing earlier spring leaf emergence, extended growing seasons, and shifted flowering times due to warmer temperatures and reduced snow cover. Rhododendron arboreum, have shown delayed flowering. These alterations in plant phrenology threaten high-altitude biodiversity and ecosystem stability

    Impact of climate change Himalayan on biodiversity &water quality

    The lowering soil moisture consequent to less snow cover, thinning of glacier and degrading permafrost adversely impact the vegetation of the region. Particularly in spring and summer, it limits water availability for vegetation growth.

     Without the insulating snow layer, winter temperatures can cause deeper soil freezing. This results in higher fine root mortality, nutrient loss, and lower microbial activity. It may cause extensive damage to the vegetation of the region.

    Less snowpack causes earlier snowmelt, which can trigger earlier, but less productive, plant growth.

    Less water storage in snowpack lead to forest water stress and eventually cause higher tree mortality rates. Forest water stress occurs when water loss through transpiration exceeds uptake from the soil, causing severe physiological strain due to drought. Forest water stress leads to loss of a large population of trees in an extensive area.

    When snowpack decreases, or when rain-on-snow events increase, it leads to increased soil nutrient leaching. This may cause higher nutrient loads (like phosphorus and nitrogen) being flushed into waterways, degrading water quality.

    Reduced SWE [snow water equivalent] is associated with snow draught. This causes less meltwater available in the dry season, leading to lower streamflows and reduced reservoir levels.

    With reduction in total water volumes, the concentration of pollutants in remaining water sources can increase, reducing water quality for consumption and poor sustenance of aquatic life.

    The Himalayas provide 30–60% of downstream freshwater, rising to 70–90% in some semi-arid and arid environments.

    Water supply reduction affects irrigation, leading to lower crop yields and thus scarcity of food resources in the nearest future.

     Impact of intensified anthropogenic activities on Himalayas

    Ecosystem services and goods offered by mountains are of global significance, as they provide fresh water, biodiversity, mineral resources etc.

     Deforestation, habitat fragmentation, overgrazing, and road construction, especially in the Eastern Himalayas cause adverse impacts on the Himalayan ecosystem.

    Illegal wildlife trade poses a threat to endangered species. Construction of dams and other illegal encroachment to sensitive zones also destroy the biodiversity and eco system.

    The Himalayas- Biodiversity Conservation Efforts

    To the conserve the ecosystem of Himalayan region efforts are being made in a stringent way as the region has been listed among the four biodiversity hotspots in India.

    The strategic conservation measures include :

    • Protected zones:

     Implementation of national parks and sanctuaries, such as the, Barsey Rhododendron Sanctuary, where grazing is banned to protect endemic species.

    • Sustainable Practices are recommended &practiced
    • Development of medicinal plant conservation zones
    •  promoting, community-led, conservation initiatives.
    • Enforcement of regulations against illegal mining, and regulating unsustainable tourism.
    • sustainable agricultural practices.
    • addressing the impacts of climate change
    • image courtesy: freepik.com
    • written by dr sanjana p souparnika[ copyright]

  • The great Himalayas- A geographical overview of the mountain ranges & sacred linking with myths

       The Himalayas are the majestic mountain ranges spreading over territories of six countries. The mountain ranges are the determinants of the climate and ecosystems of Indian subcontinent. Himalayas are intricately linked with myths of the land & has been a revered zone of divinity for various religions since antiquity.

    The Himalayas extends over territories of six countries including India, China, Nepal. Bhutan, Pakistan and Afghanistan. The mountain range is involved in dispute related to sovereignty in Kashmir region among India, China and Pakistan.

    Geographical borders of Himalayan ranges

    The Himalayan range is bordered on the northwest by the Karakoram and Hindu Kush ranges, on the north by the Tibetan Plateau, and on the south by the Indo-Gangetic Plain.

       The mountain ranges contain some of the Earth’s highest peaks. The Mount Everest, more than 100 peaks exceeding elevations of 7,200 m (23,600 ft) above sea level lie in the Himalayas.

    The word ‘Himalayas’ hails from the Sanskrit words hima and aalaya which means” abode of snow”.

    Himalayas give origin to many rivers and its tributaries. The Indus, the Ganges, and the Tsangpo–Brahmaputra, rise in the vicinity of the Himalayas.

     

    Himalayas through the veil of mythology

     India has a unique culture and heritage which extends beyond its borders and profoundly shaped the cultures of South Asia and Tibet.

    Rivers are the cradle of civilizations everywhere on the globe since prehistoric times. Mountains and rivers with their tributaries nourish and nurture life in their vicinity. Landforms and river banks have played a significant role in shaping the cultural heritage and beliefs of the subcontinent. The livelihoods of populations living along the riverbanks are dependent on the availability of water, crops, cultivation, aquatic life forms, etc.

        Ancient tribes believed that mountains provided them security from invasions and sudden attacks; moreover, they believed that rain and river water originated from the mountain tops. Consequently, the ancient people who inhabited the subcontinent started worshipping mountains and rivers.

        Many Indian hamlets still revere the local landforms, water bodies, and trees as gods and goddesses. This deep connection with nature transforms mountains and rivers into divine, personified figures.

       This sacred linking can be traced in the texts and inscriptions of the entire subcontinent. Mountains were considered as holy as rivers, and ancient people believed that gods resided on mountain tops. Even today, most temples in India are built on mountains and in their valleys. Rivers have also been personified as goddesses. The story of the Himalayas, with its rich mythological connections, is phenomenal.

    The word “Himalaya” is mentioned in ancient epics and purana texts as “Himavaan ” as a personified king  and the goddess Devi Parvathi is regarded as the daughter of Himavan. Therefore, Himalaya mountain ranges have significant role in Indian mythology as sacred mountains in Hinduism and Buddhism.

       Themount Kailash is regarded as the abode of Hindu god Shiva and his consort goddess Devi Parvati with their children. This mountain range is visited by millions of pilgrim tourists every year. The pilgrimage generally involves trekking towards Lake Manasarovar and a circumambulation of Mount Kailash. Hindus take a ritual bath in the Manasarovar lake before doing circumambulation.

     Pilgrims believe that doing a circumambulation of Mount Kailash is spiritually uplifting towards salvation or liberation cleansing the impurities of minds.

    Mount Kailash is located in Ngari Prefecture, Tibet Autonomous Region of China. The peak of Mount Kailash is located at an elevation of 6,638 m (21,778 ft), near the western trijunction between China, India and Nepal.

    Mount Kailash is situated close to Manasarovar and Rakshastal lakes. The sources of four rivers: Indus, Sutlej, Brahmaputra, and Ghaghara lie in the vicinity of the region. Mount Kailash is sacred in Bon, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism.

    Hindu text Skanda Purana offers an interesting narrative about mount Kailash as follows:

     “There are no mountains like the Himalaya, for in them are Kailas and Manasarovar. As the dew is dried up by the morning Sun, so are the sins of mankind dried up by the sight of the Himalaya.”

       Kailash and Manasarovar are mentioned in the Hindu epics Ramayana and Mahabharata.

    According to Jain scriptures, Rishabhadeva, the first Tirthankar of Jainism attained moksha (liberation) on Mount Kailash.

    However, due to the beliefs of different faiths that revere Mount Kailash, setting foot on its slopes or attempting to climb it is forbidden by law.

       Indian subcontinent has several such sacred linking with its geography. The rivers originating from Himalayas such as Indus, Ganges along with their tributaries are considered holy and this sacred linking is evident in Shiv purana.

    The river Ganges is considered as goddess Ganga, a consort of lord Shiva and it is believed that Ganga is residing in the locks of Shivas hair and flows from there to earth. ‘The descend of Ganga ‘is a celebrated festival in Himalayan states of India and the mythology related to the descend of Ganga is intricately connected with Lord Shiva.

    Geography of Himalayan mountain ranges

    The Himalayas were uplifted after the collision of the Indian tectonic plate with the Eurasian plate. It is an ongoing collision which began approximately 50-55 million years ago. This intense continental convergence, following the closure of the Tethys Ocean, causes the crust to buckle and thicken, driving the rapid, continuous uplift of the mountain range at rates exceeding 1 cm/year.

    The Himalayan mountain range extends west-northwest to east-southeast in an arc 2,400 km.

      Its western anchor, Nanga Parbat, lies just south of the northernmost bend of the Indus river. Its eastern anchor, Namcha Barwa, lies immediately west of the great bend of the Yarlung Tsangpo River. The Indus-Yarlung suture zone, along which the headwaters of these two rivers flow, separates the Himalayas from the Tibetan plateau.

     The rivers also separate the Himalayas from the Karakorams, the Hindu Kush, and the Transhimalaya ranges

     The range varies in width from 350 km in the west to 151 km in the east

    Mountain ranges of Himalayas -south to north

    The Himalayas include four parallel mountain ranges from south to north:

     The Sivalik Hills on the south; the Lower Himalayan Range; the Great Himalayas, which is the highest and central range; and the Tibetan Himalayas on the north. The Karakoram ranges are regarded  as separate ranges from the Himalayas.

    In the middle of the great curve of the Himalayan mountains lie the 8,000 m (26,000 ft) peaks of Dhaulagiri and Annapurna in Nepal, separated by the Kali Gandaki Gorge. The gorge splits the Himalayas into Western and Eastern sections, both ecologically and orographically – the pass at the head of the Kali Gandaki, the Kora La, is the lowest point on the ridgeline between Everest and K2 (the highest peak of the Karakoram range).

    To the east of Annapurna are the 8,000 m peaks of Manaslu and across the border in Tibet, Shishapangma.

    To the south of these is situated Kathmandu, the capital of Nepal and the largest city in the Himalayas. East of the Kathmandu Valley lies the valley of the Bhote/Sun Kosi river which rises in Tibet and provides the main overland route between Nepal and China – the Araniko Highway/China National Highway 318.

    Further east is the Mahalangur Himal with four of the world’s six highest mountains, including the highest: Cho Oyu, Everest, Lhotse, and Makalu. The Khumbu region, well-known for trekking, is found here on the south-western approaches to Everest.

    The Arun river drains the northern slopes of these mountains, before turning south and flowing to the range to the east of Makalu.

    In the far east of Nepal, the Himalayas rise to the Kangchenjunga massif on the border with India, the third-highest mountain in the world, the most easterly 8,000 m (26,000 ft) summit and the highest point of India.

    The eastern side of Kangchenjunga is in the Indian state of Sikkim. Formerly an independent Kingdom, it lies on the main route from India to Lhasa, Tibet, which passes over the Nathu La pass into Tibet.

     East of Sikkim lies the ancient Buddhist Kingdom of Bhutan. The highest mountain in Bhutan is Gangkhar Puensum, which is also a strong candidate for the highest unclimbed mountain in the world. The Himalayas here are becoming increasingly rugged, with heavily forested steep valleys.

     The Himalayas continue, turning slightly northeast, through the Indian State of Arunachal Pradesh as well as Tibet, before reaching their easterly conclusion in the peak of Namche Barwa, situated in Tibet, inside the great bend of the Yarlang Tsangpo river. On the other side of the Tsangpo, to the east, are the Kangri Garpo mountains. The high mountains to the north of the Tsangpo, including Gyala Peri, however, are also sometimes included in the Himalayas.

    Far west from Dhaulagiri, Western Nepal,the home to Rara Lake exists. The Karnali River rises in Tibet but cuts through the centre of the region.

     Further west of the border, the Sarda River provides a trade route into China, where on the Tibetan plateau lies the high peak of Gurla Mandhata.

    Around the  Lake Manasarovar  lies the sacred Mount Kailash in the Kailash Ranges ,and close to it is the origin of the four main holy rivers of Himalayas which are revered  in Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism & Sufism.

     In Uttarakhand, the Himalayas are named as the Kumaon and Garhwal Himalayas with the high peaks of Nanda Devi and Kamet.

    Uttarkhand has several significant pilgrimage destinations  such as Chota Chaar Dhaam, with Gangotri, the source of origin of the holy river Ganges, Yamunotri, the site of origin of the river Yamuna, and the temples at Badrinath and Kedarnath.

     Himachal Pradesh, is popular Indian state with its hill stations Shimla and Dharamsala. This region marks the beginning of the Punjab Himalaya and the Sutlej River, the most easterly of the five tributaries of the Indus, cuts through the range here.

     Further west, the Himalayas form the mountainous Jammu region and the renowned Kashmir Valley with the town and lakes of Srinagar.

     The Himalayas form most of the south-west portion of the disputed Indian-administered union territory of Ladakh. The twin peaks of Nun Kun are the only mountains over 7,000 m (4.3 miles) in this part of the Himalayas.

     The Himalayas extending into the western end in the dramatic 8000 m peak of Nanga Parbat, which rises over 8,000 m (26,000 ft) above the Indus valley and is the most westerly of the 8000 m summits. The western end terminates at a magnificent point near Nanga Parbat where the Himalayas intersect with the Karakoram and Hindu Kush ranges, in the disputed Pakistani-administered territory of Gilgit-Baltistan.

     Some parts of the Himalayas, such as the Kaghan Valley, Margalla Hills, and Galyat tract, extend into the Pakistani provinces of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Punjab.

    Apart from the geological and geographical significance The Himalayas are ecologically sensitive biodiversity hotspots , defence barrier and determinants of climate change in the subcontinent.

    This majestic mountain ranges amaze the world for centuries with its splendour and grandeur and captivate adventure trekking lovers with its glorious peaks.

  • Fossils to decipher the geological &evolutionary history of the earth

      Fossils are the windows to the evolutionary history of Earth and its organisms. They provide valuable information about the geological and evolutionary history of Earth.

     Fossils are the are the remains of ancient organisms or the traces of activity of such organisms. They are preserved remains or traces of ancient life.

    Paleontogy is the branch of science dealing with study of fossils.  More precisely paleontologists explore the evolutionary pathways, past geological environment, climate, tectonic movements etc. through the study of fossils received from various geographical regions of the world.

     Fossil studies have vital role in portraying the history and geology of various countries and continents. There are different types of fossils and they help reconstruct “the tree of life”. The remains of ancient life or fossils include bones, shells, footprints, burrows and impressions which help to decipher the evolutionary, geological, cultural history of the earth.

    Geological History is unravelled through the study of fossils as they date rock layers or strata and correlate geological time across different regions.

     Fossilized dung and footprints also throw light into the ancient history of different regions and the animals lived there. It throws light also into archaeological studies unravelling the civilizational history spanning over continents and time.

    Fossils are indicators of the climate prevailed in the historic times. They also provide vital information about plate tectonics and evolutionary history of continents, mountains, ocean basins etc.

    Types of Fossils

    There are different types of fossils and each type of fossils have particular significance in paleontological, geological &archaeological studies. The chief fossil types include:

    • Body Fossils:  These include preserved parts such as bones, shells, wood or imprints of organisms.
    • Trace Fossils:  these types of fossils are evidence of activity particularly of animals such as tracks, burrows, nests, coprolites. Trace fossils provide evidences for the organism’s presence in a particular chronological period of history. The trace fossils include footprints, burrows, dungs etc.
    • Molecular Fossils:  These are preserved organic molecules, providing hints about ancient biochemistry.

    Fossilization- How do fossils form?

    Fossilization is a complex process of fossil formation happening spontaneously overtime. It requires rapid burial in sediment (like mud or ash) to prevent decaying. Fossilization of hard parts (bones, shells) is the most common type.

    Fossils undergo a variety of different fossilization processes, depending on the characteristics of the particular organism. There are various levels of fossil preservation, each containing its own clues pertaining to the organism.

    Fossilization processes include:

    • Permineralization: Minerals fill pores, turning organic matter to rock.
    • Compression: Organic matter is squeezed into a

    carbon film.

    • Impressions: the two-dimensional imprint most commonly found in silt or clay, without organic material present.
    • Compactions: preservation of organic material with slight volume reduction.
    • Molecular fossils: deals with chemical data, preserving organic material, but providing no information concerning the structure of the organism.
    • Freezing: ideal fossils that are rare, everything up to internal organs are preserved in cold storage.
    • Amber: biological specimen that is encased in the hardened resin of a tree, in which the entire body may be preserved.
    • Drying & Desiccation: fossils that have been thoroughly dried.
    • Wax & Asphalt: almost as good as freezing, but with the usage of natural paraffin.
    • Coprolites & Gastroliths: these categories deal with the indigestable remnants of meals.
    • Trace fossils: typically formed when an organism moves over the surface of soft sediment and leaves an impression of its movement behind.
    • Molds & Casts: An impression is left, then filled.

    Conditions that facilitate fossilization

    Fossilization is a complex process and certain conditions are crucial for fossilization. The most common types of fossils are those which are having hard parts such as bones& Shell and had a rapid burial after death of the organism.

    Besides being tough and hard, the organism must come to rest in a place where it can be buried before it decays or disintegrates. If the organism is not buried deeply and quickly, aerobic bacteria will reduce it to rubble. Water, given enough time, can also dissolve it. For this reason, fossils of some organisms are rarer than others.

     The skeletons that containing a high percentage of mineral matter are most readily preserved. The soft tissue that is not close to skeletal parts is less likely to be preserved.

     Other conditions that lead to fossilization include resting an environment that was biologically inert, areas that are receiving a large, steady supply of sediment (deltas of major rivers), and parts of the earth below sea level compared to those above the sea level.

     The ideal place to become a fossil is at the bottom of a quiet sea or lake where the prospective fossil is least likely to be damaged. Moreover, it can be covered rapidly with sediment.

     Clay provides ideal conditions for fossilization as the sediment protects the tissues and helps to exclude predators and solvent water.

    How do fossils unravel the past?

    • Origin of life -evolutionary history through fossil study

    Fossils provides snapshots of the past which when gathered together yields the whole picture of evolutionary change over the past 3.5 billion years although there could be some missing links.

    Life originated in the marine environment or sea. The earliest evidence of life on earth is of marine animals, during the Precambrian era. The oldest known Precambrian rocks, found in Africa and Australia [ more than three billion years old]and the fossils found among them are of the oldest known organisms on earth.

    The fossils on ancient rocks are of Eobacterium and other water environment fossils. Bacteria e are the first recognizable organized form of life. However, it is a curious fact that scientists have found well defined remains of algae and bacteria from around two billion years ago.

    Commonly fossils are found in sedimentary rock.  These types of rocks have significance in the evolutionary history as well as in geological history. Sedimentary layers act as evidence of the changing climate or movement of the continents during the passage of time.

     Fossils that are preserved in amber give amount of information about the anatomy of that organism. Insects that have been trapped and preserved perfectly in amber (fossilised tree resin). Here organism is usually preserved intact without any disintegration of organs, muscles, and coloring. Even bones may tell a great deal about the soft anatomy.

    Some parts of a few fossils can also give an account of growth, injury, disease, form, function, activities, and instincts.

     Fossils record the successive evolutionary diversification of living things, the successive colonization of habitats, and the development of increasingly complex organic communities.

     Fossils can chronicle about the environment and the climatic conditions under which the organisms lived.

    • Fossils as geological time markers

    In geological science fossils act as time markers. They throw light into the age and sequence of rock layers (strata) and the evolution of life, with specific fossils appearing and disappearing at certain periods, marking major boundaries like eras and periods.

     Fossils help geo-scientists to correlate rock ages and understand Earth’s history.

     Fossil study shows the time when species evolve and become extinct. Fossils of some plants and animals are confined to known, specific periods of geological time. Thus, fossils give us a useful insight into the history of life on Earth. The evolution of human beings and other life forms, the change in environment through geological time are unravelled by fossils.

     They also give an account of tectonic plate movements happened in the past and evidence for collisions or continental drifts that separated continents. Fossil study of various geographical regions helps to find out the similarities in species and evolution of new species happening overtime, as a result of isolation of continents by tectonic activity.

    Fossils provide important evidence for evolution and the adaptation of plants and animals to their environments.

    Fossils can also be used to date rocks and throw lights into geological history. Different kinds of fossils occur in rocks of different ages and they are evidences of evolutionary as well as geological change overtime.

    Fossils buttress the study of environmental degradation by providing a baseline of past, pristine environmental conditions and by offering a continuous record of how ecosystems responded to both natural and human-induced changes over time.

     In a nut shell fossils are windows to the past which opens into the vast expanse of buried scientific facts which trigger explorations in different fields of science and technology to know the unknown or more precisely the mysteries of the Earth.

    written by dr sanjana p souparnika

    Reference for further reading

  • Impact of plate tectonics on biodiversity

     The term “Biodiversity” encompasses a wide variety of life on Earth, with a large diversity of genes, species, and ecosystems. Tectonic plate movements and its consequent climate and habitat change have detrimental impact on biodiversity and evolution of species.

    Biodiversity is a hotly debated and researched topic from time to time by numerous scientists & environmentalists in relation to climate, ecosystems and demographic characteristics. Its significance has been enhanced unprecedently in this modern era as multiple factors influence and impact on biodiversity.

    Biodiversity is integral part of sustenance life on earth as it is essential to sustain the constant flow of clean air, fresh water, and food. Biodiversity plays key role in regulating the climate, and maintaining healthy ecosystems that support human well-being.

    Biodiversity is studied by scientists conducting expeditions to survey and monitor species, habitats, and their interactions. On these expeditions, they collect data on various parameters such as population sizes and trends, distribution and habitat use, and impacts of management or other human activities.

    Since prehistoric times the earth and ecosystems have been subjected to transformations and extinctions. It is an unfortunate fact that currently the impacts on biodiversity are happening in an unprecedented rate.

     There has been an enhanced threat to biodiversity in the recent decades including habitat loss and fragmentation, excessive use of unsustainable resources, pollution, global climate change, emergence of invasive species.

     Biodiversity is influenced by a wide array of factors. The population is exploding all over the world and its impact on biodiversity is unimaginable. Overconsumption of resources and human intervention on biodiversity has adverse impacts on mankind.

    However, plate tectonics have a massive impact on biodiversity creating as well as destroying species and accelerating the process of evolution.

    Plate tectonics

    Movement of tectonic plates on the crust of Earth’s surface [plate tectonics] has major biogeographical consequences. Evidences suggest that tectonic activity began over 4 billion years ago. Collisions or rifting movements of plates creating and destroying habitats of organisms continues spanning centuries. It is happening through continental drift &by forming physical barriers like mountains through plate collisions.

    Modern understanding of planetary dynamics including plate tectonics unravel the habitat loss or creation stemming from geographical changes like this.

    Tectonic plate movement range from 10 to 40 millimetres per year (0.4 to 1.6 in/year). Where the plates meet, their relative motion determines the type of plate boundary as convergent, divergent, or transform.

    [Read more about plate tectonics]

    Tectonic movements are of different types.

    1. Ocean-to-continent subduction, where the dense oceanic lithosphere plunges beneath the less dense continent plate. At zones of ocean-to-continent subduction mountain ranges form.

    2. Ocean-to-ocean subduction where older, cooler, denser oceanic crust slips beneath less dense oceanic crust. Deep marine trenches are typically associated with subduction zones.

    3. At continental collision zones two masses of continental lithospheres are converging. As they are of similar density, neither is subducted.

    The plate edges are compressed, folded, and uplifted forming mountain ranges,

    4. At zones of ocean-to-ocean rifting, divergent boundaries form by seafloor spreading, allowing for the formation of new ocean basin. Two plates slide apart from each other.  This rifting when happens on oceanic plates it leads to formation of new ocean basin.

    5.Transform boundaries (conservative boundaries or strike-slip boundaries)

     Here plates are neither created nor destroyed. Instead, two plates slide, or precisely they grind past each other, along transform faults. Strong earthquakes may happen along a fault.

    Impact of plate tectonics on biodiversity

    Tectonic movements and continental deformation consequent to that lead to complexity of habitat. They trigger a complex landscape response. For instance, a river network reorganization including river captures by tectonic forces leads to an unusually high diversity of habitat through isolation, creation or destruction of facets of the landscape.

     Building of mountain barriers consequent to plate tectonics quite often lead to isolation and speciation, and connecting landmasses via land bridges that allow for species migration and exchange.

     These movements of tectonic plates also drive global climate shifts, influencing the distribution and evolution of life.

    Let us delve deeper into the tectonic impact on geomorphology and its impact on species and biodiversity.

    • Continental drift and habitat formation:

     As continents separate, new continental margins are created during movement of tectonic plates, it creates potential habitats and spurring diversification.

    • Continental collision &new merged habitat formation:

     When the tectonic plates collide, previously separated landmasses can merge again. This may lead to competition between new species and that occupied similar niches in isolation.

    • Land bridges formation & migration

     Plate tectonics can cause sea levels to drop, forming land bridges that connect continents. This new land bridges facilitate migration of species between the continents. A famous example is the Bering land bridge between Siberia and Alaska, which allowed many species, including early humans, to migrate between continents.

    • Isolation and speciation

    The formation of mountain ranges through plate collisions may function as a physical barrier leading to isolation or separating populations and thus preventing gene flow. Over time, isolated populations can evolve independently as new species through a process called allopatric speciation.

    The separation of continents and the formation of ocean basins can act as another kind of barriers driving marine and terrestrial diversification.

    • Climate change and species composition

      Plate tectonics influence global climate patterns drastically by changing ocean currents and creating mountain ranges that affect atmospheric circulation.

    The global climate patterns in turn affects the types of habitats available for organisms. The fossil records elucidate how climate changes drive changes in species composition and distribution.

    • New ecosystems formation

    Geological changes such as the creation of mid-ocean ridges, oceanic trenches, and volcanic island arcs due to tectonic movements eventually lead to the formation of new habitats and ecosystems.

    The subsequent cooling and sinking of oceanic crust can displace seawater, causing global sea levels to rise.

    • Evolutionary patterns of populations from variance

     The splitting of a continuous population by the formation of a physical barrier such as mountains, ocean basins etc. is called vicariance. This can lead to the evolutionary divergence of populations on either side of the barrier.

    • Plate tectonics function as Rift and collision pumps:

     Plate tectonics can be described as a “rift pump” as it increases biodiversity through isolation. It functions as a “collision pump” that enhances competition between new & existing species when continents collide. In either way plate tectonics impacts on biodiversity.

    • Acceleration of evolution:

      The separation and collision of continents compel species to adapt to new environments created.

    This can lead to new evolutionary paths or extinctions.

    The dynamic changes impacted by plate tectonics, including the creation and destruction of habitats, can accelerate the pace of biological evolution.

    Fossil studies reveal that plate tectonics have been associated with profound biogeographical consequences, such as isolation and speciation. Eventually geologically isolated species may emerge as a new species in the new ecosystem.  Similarly, another type of collision of tectonic plates may merge isolated continents forming ridges or land bridges. Now this may cause competition between existing and newly joined species and gradual extinction.

     The impact of plate tectonics on biodiversity and climate is evident in the fossil record of animals with Gondwanan affinities in India and Madagascar.

      The collision of continents can connect previously separated landmasses. The collision of India with Asia as per the fossil studies show that fossils of shared vertebrate groups found in both India and Madagascar, showing a link to the former supercontinent Gondwana.

    A formation of the Isthmus of Panama allowed for the exchange of animals between North and South America.

    conclusion

     Plate tectonic is not the only cause that impacts biodiversity. Several other factors like global warming, human interventions and natural catastrophes such as volcanic eruptions and ocean currents play their own roles. However the tectonic movements have significant role in the evolutionary process of extinction as well as emergence of new species.

    Written by dr sanjana p souparnika

  • Impact of plate tectonics on biogeography

    Plate tectonics is defined as gliding over of tectonic plates of earth’s crust over its semi fluid asthenosphere. This movement of plates accounts for the formation of biogeography of earth with mountains, earthquakes, volcanoes, and the distribution of continents and oceans over millions of years.  

     Of late tectonic plates movements and the impact on biogeography is researched with unprecedented significance. Tectonic plates and their movement have pivotal role in the evolution of species including mankind. How?

    The planet earth has tectonic plates over its surface and which are in constant motion. Their movement and collisions are associated with significant transformations in earth’s geological and oceanographic structures.

    What are tectonic plates?

    Tectonic plates are large, fragmented sections of Earth’s upper mantle and crust that cover the entire globe.These tectonic plates are in continuous movement and the movements and collisions lead to formation of huge mountains, and ocean trenches and various other geological features. These activity of tectonic plate happens at different intervals reshaping global geography over millions of years.

    The term plate tectonics is derived from Latin word  tectonicus or from Ancient Greek word tektonikos  meaning ‘pertaining to building’

    The tectonic plates on the surface of Earth on Lithosphere have been slowly moving since 3–4 billion years ago.Earth’s lithosphere, the rigid outer shell including the crust and upper mantle, is fractured into seven or eight major plates and many minor plates or “platelets”. The relative movement of the plates typically ranges from zero to 10 cm annually.

    Tectonic plates are composed of the oceanic lithosphere and the thicker continental lithosphere, each topped by its own kind of crust.

    What are plate boundaries?

    Plate boundaries are formed by movement of different types of tectonic plates relative to each other. Tectonic plate movement range from 10 to 40 millimetres per year (0.4 to 1.6 in/year). Where the plates meet, their relative motion determines the type of plate boundary as convergent, divergent, or transform.

    Three types of plate boundaries exist, characterized by the way the plates move relative to each other.

    They are associated with different types of geomorphological changes& climate change.

    1.Divergent boundaries (constructive boundaries or extensional boundaries).

     These are boundaries where two plates slide apart from each other.  This rifting may lead to the formation of new ocean basin.

    At zones of ocean-to-ocean rifting, divergent boundaries form by seafloor spreading, allowing for the formation of new ocean basin.

    2.Convergent boundaries (destructive boundaries or active margins)

    These boundaries occur where two plates slide toward each other. The convergent boundaries may form either a subduction zone (one plate moving underneath the other) or a continental collision.

    Subduction zones :

    1.ocean-to-continent subduction, where the dense oceanic lithosphere plunges beneath the less dense continent plate.

    2. ocean to ocean subduction

    here older denser oceanic crust slips beneath less dense ocean

    associated with subduction zones, and the basins that develop along the active boundary are often called “foreland basins”.

    At zones of ocean-to-ocean subduction a deep trench forms in an arc shape. The upper mantle of the subducted plate then heats and magma rises to form curving chains of volcanic islands e.g. the Aleutian Islands, the Mariana Islands, the Japanese island arc.

    At zones of ocean-to-continent subduction mountain ranges form, e.g. the Andes, the Cascade Range.

    Continental collision zones:

    At continental collision zones  two masses of continental lithospheres are converging. As they are of similar density, neither is subducted.

    The plate edges are compressed, folded, and uplifted forming mountain ranges, e.g. Himalayas and Alps. Closure of ocean basins can occur at continent-to-continent boundaries.

    3.Transform boundary

    Transform boundaries (conservative boundaries or strike-slip boundaries) occur where plates are neither created nor destroyed. Instead, two plates slide, or precisely they grind past each other, along transform faults.

    Strong earthquakes may happen along a fault. The San Andreas Fault in California is an example of a transform boundary exhibiting dextral motion.

    In addition to these three boundaries other plate boundary zones occur where the effects of the interactions are not very clear.

    Geomorphological consequences of tectonic plate movements

    It is intriguing to understand that plate tectonics affects climate patterns, ocean currents, and the evolution of species.

     The boundaries where tectonic plates interact are risky zones of increased volcanic and seismic activity. Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes are common in these zones.

     Earthquakes do occur when tectonic plates slip past each other, while volcanoes form where plates collide and one dives under the other (subduction), or where plates pull apart (divergent movement).

    Along convergent plate boundaries,as the process of subduction carries the edge of one plate down under the other plate and into the mantle there is reduction in the total surface area (crust) of Earth. The lost surface at one boundary is balanced by the formation of new oceanic crust along divergent margins by seafloor spreading[ divergence] and thus keeping the total surface area constant in a tectonic “conveyor belt”.

    The mankind has always amazed at the formation of huge mountain ranges since time immemorial. Study of tectonic plate movements unraveled this mystery to man a few decades ago. The tectonic plates can collide with each other and the forceful collision cause the land to be forced upward, creating mountain ranges. Similarly, divergence when happens on oceanic plates it leads to formation of new ocean basin. ocean-to-ocean subduction leads to the formation of deep marine trenches typically.

    Impact of plate tectonics on global climate

    Over millions of years, the continents have drifted apart and have come together, creating new oceans and continents.

    These movements of tectonic plates affect global climate by influencing ocean currents, which distribute heat around the planet. Mountains formed by tectonics can also affect regional climates and function as important sinks for carbon dioxide.

     Impact of tectonic plate movement on evolution

      The separation and collision of continents compel species to adapt to new environments created.

    This can lead to new evolutionary paths or extinctions.

    Impact on marine environment

     The formation of new ocean ridges may happen from plate tectonics. The subsequent cooling and sinking of oceanic crust can displace seawater, causing global sea levels to rise.

    Beyond earthquakes and volcanoes, plate tectonics can contribute to tsunamis and landslides.

    According to a hypothesis proposed by Robert Stern and Taras Gerya, plate tectonics are a necessary criterion for a planet to be able to sustain complex life as they play a key role in regulating the carbon cycle.

    Continental drift theory helps biogeographers to explain the disjunct biogeographic distribution of present-day life found on different continents.

  • Bhedaghat   & Dhuandhar  falls of Narmada river.

    It is a famous tourist destination in Jabalpur district well known for its incredible natural beauty, marble situated on the sides of the Narmada River which flows through the gorge.

     Bhedaghat has a famous water falls known as Dhuandhar Falls. Bhedaghat has been added on UNESCO list of natural world heritage sites.

    Location:

    Bhedaghat is located in Jabalpur district in the state of Madhya Pradesh, India. It is situated by the side of river Narmada and is approximately 20 km from Jabalpur city.

    Narmada river is the 5th longest river in India and the longest west-flowing river in the country. It is also the largest flowing river in the state of Madhya Pradesh. It is one of the rivers in India that flows in a rift valley, bordered by the Satpura and Vindhya ranges. The source of the Narmada is a small reservoir, known as the Narmada Kund, located at Amarkantak in the Anuppur District [Madhya Pradesh].

    Narmada -Through the veil of myths & beliefs

    In Indian subcontinent landscapes and rivers have a sacred linking with mythology. Narmada River is not an exception and which is considered as a goddess as well as a river in Hindu mythology. The Matsya Purana states that all of the banks along the Narmada are sacred.

    According to Hindu mythological stories and legends the Narmada was created from Shiva’s perspiration while he was performing penance on Mount Riksha and therefore the Narmada River is considered as Shiva’s daughter.

     As per another legend, the river Narmada has a different story of origin. The two teardrops fell from the eyes of Brahma [ the creator of the universe] started flowing as two rivers – the Narmada and the Son River.

    The pebbles of Narmada River also speak a story of mythological linking. Narmada Riverbeds’ pebbles are known as banalinga. The pebbles are made up of white quartz and are linga shaped [ Shiv linga]. They are believed to be the personified form of Shiva.

    The Narmada River is also worshipped as mother goddess Muktidayani, or liberating mother.

    Dhuandhar Falls

      The Narmada  river descends from Sonmuda, then falls over a cliff as Kapildhara waterfall and meanders in the hills, flowing through a tortuous course crossing the rocks and islands up to the ruined palace of Ramnagar. The river then runs north–west in a narrow loop towards Jabalpur. Close to Jabalpur city , at Bedaghat the river forms Dhuander falls.

    This waterfall is located on the Narmada River in Bhedaghat and the fall is 30 meters high. Dhuandhar waterfalls   can be accessed from the east bank as well as the west bank of the Narmada River.

    The Narmada River, making its way through the world-famous Marble Rocks, narrows down and then plunges into a waterfall known as Dhuandhar. The plunge creates a bouncing mass of mist. The waterfall creates a smoky atmosphere and hence it is known as Dhuander fall. The word ‘Dhuandhar’ is derived from two Hindi words Dhuan which means smoke and Dhar meaning flow.

    This huge waterfall can be heard from a far distance as water plunges with intense force.

    To view the other side of Dhuandhar Falls, cable car service is available at Bhedaghat. The ropeway facility starts from the east bank of the Narmada River, crosses the river and then drops tourists off at the river’s west bank

    Bhedaghat a favourite shooting location for Hindi movie makers

    Many famous and superhit movies have been shot in this hilly terrain.

    The Hindi film Asoka was shot in Bhedaghat among the marble rocks by the Narmada River [2001].

    The crocodile fight scenes of the Hindi film Mohenjo Daro also are shot at Bhedaghat[2016].

    How to reach Bhedaghat?

    The nearest railway station is Bhedaghat Railway station. It is possible to take a tempo (auto-rickshaw) from Jabalpur to Bhedaghat. Its distance from the main city is about 28 km. The nearest airport is Jabalpur.

    References

  • Pachmarhi  – The queen of Satpura

     Pachmarhi is a hill station near the Satpura range of Mountains in Madhya Pradesh ,India. It is a treasure trove of rich history with its hilltop caves and is blessed immensely by it rich forests and water falls.

    Pachmarhi is situated in a valley of the Satpura Range and is widely known as Satpura ki Rani or Queen of Satpura. Most of its land area is under the administration of the Pachmarhi Cantonment Board, which serves the Indian Army.

    Location

    Pachmarhi is  a  small hill station in Hoshangabad district of Madhya Pradesh state of central India. It has an altitude of 1067. Dhupgarh, the highest point (1,352 meters) in Madhya Pradesh and the Satpura range, is located close to it.The town is wholly located within the Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve and the Satpura Tiger Reserve.

    Climate

    The average temperature of this place is 21.7 °C and the average annual rainfall in is 2012 milimeters. May is the hottest month of the year, with an average temperature of 30.3 °C, while December is the coldest month of the year, with an average temperature of 15.5 °C.

    Pachmarhi – The queen of Satpura

     The hill station has a sacred linking with mythology through its hilltop caves which are well-known as the ‘Pandavs Caves’. According to a legend, these caves were built by five Pandava brothers of Mahabharatha era during their thirteen years of exile.

    Pachmarhi is a year-round tourist destination due to its pleasant weather, however during monsoon and winter season accentuate the charm of its landscapes.

    A tour through Pachmarhi may lead you to hill top cave temples and one of the prominent cave temples is Jata Shankar cave, deriving its name from the peculiar rock formation that looks like the matted dreadlocks [Jata] of Lord Shiva.

    Dhupgarh is another viewpoint of the Satpura Range[highest point is 1,352 m] well known for its sunrise and sunsets. The night view also has its own exquisite aesthetic appeal with the glimmering lights of  neighboring town Itarsi. The

    Sangam, a conflux of mountain streams behind Dhupgarh flows incessantly with its crystal-clear water down the valleys in almost all seasons as silvery lines over the mountain ranges.

    PanarPani is yet another natural freshwater lake of Pachmarhi with dense forest surrounding it.

     The Chauragarh fort is also a widely known spot for sunrise viewing. During the festivities of Nagpanchami and Mahashivratri, devotees flock to Chauragarh temple in large numbers, leaving about 2 lakh trishuls as offerings to Lord Shiva which are kept in front of the temple and also on the way to the temple.

    Some of the important places to visit in Pachmarhi

    Rajat Prapat  waterfall

    Bee Fall

    Bada Mahadev

    Gupt Mahadev

    Chauragarh (visited by devotees during Mahashivratri)

    Dhupgarh (the highest peak of the Satpura range)

    Handi Khoh (deep valley)

    Apsara Falls (fairy pool)

    Jata shankar cave (stalagmite-filled cave in a deep ravine)

    Dutchess Fall

    Pachmarhi Hill

    Pansy Pool

    Waters Meet

    Picadilly Circus

    Patharchatta

    Crumps Crag

    Lady Robertson’s View

    Colletin Crag

    Mount Rosa

    Reechgarh

    Rajendra Giri gardens

    Bansri Vihar

    Little Fall

    Naagdwari

    Draupadi Kund

    Twynham Pool

    Chhota Mahadev

    Nandigad

    History of Pachmarhi

    The ancient history of this region is still obscure as a mountain range which was less inhabited by people. It is known that the hill station was connected with the Bhonsle Kingdom and was later ruled by the Marathas in the 18th century.

    It was later part of the Gondi kingdom of Bhagvat Singh in the 19th century, although there was no permanent settlement at that time.

    The Chauragarh fort  was built by king Sangram Shah of the Gond dynasty. It was developed by SenaSahebSubha Janoji Maharaj of Nagpur। from the Maratha Era the Pilgrimage from Nagpur Start।.

     The origins of modern Panchmarhi can be traced back to 1857, when Captain James Forsyth of the British Army and Subhedar Major Nathoo Ramji Powar noticed the plateau while en route to Jhansi. It quickly developed into a hill station and sanatorium for British troops in the Central Provinces of India, and Powar was made Kotwal or army chief of the locality.

    Pachmarhi biosphere reserve

    It is a UNESCO listed Biosphere reserve  with its rich flora and fauna. The total area of Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve is 4981.72 km2. The reserve spans parts of three civil districts, viz; Hoshangabad (59.55%), Chhindwara (29.19%) and Betul (11.26%)

    UNESCO added the Pachmarhi area to its list of Biosphere Reserves in May 2009, due to the many rare plant species in the vicinity. It includes three wildlife conservation units  – Bori Sanctuary 485.72 km2), Satpura National Park (524.37 km2) and Pachmarhi Sanctuary (491.63 km2)

    The Satpura Tiger Reserve contains several large mammal species, including the tiger, leopard, wild boar, gaur (Bos gaurus), chital deer (Axis axis), muntjac deer, sambar deer (Cervus unicolor), and rhesus macaques.

    The endemic fauna also includes chinkara, nilgai, wild dogs, the Indian wolf, bison, Indian giant squirrels, and flying squirrels.

     The biosphere reserve includes fruit trees such as mangoes, jamun, custard fruit, and lesser-known local fruits such as khatua, tendu, chunna, khinni, and chaar. Oak and blue pine are also found here  abundantly.  the forest is also known for having many medicinal plants and herbs.

    Waterfalls of Pachmarhi

    Silver Falls or Rajat Prapat, is falling from a height of 350 feet and looks like a silver strip when sunlight falls on it, hence is called Silver Falls.

    Apsara Vihar Falls is just a 10-minute downhill trail and one of the most beautiful falls in Pachmarhi. It is believed that during the British era, beautiful British women used to bathe here and the locals thought of them to be apsaras and hence the pool was named Apsara Vihar.

    Bee Falls or the Jamuna Prapat is the most magnificent waterfall and is just 5 km from the Pachmarhi bus stand. Cascading down from a height of 150 feet, the fall is named as such because from a distance the waterfall sounds like a bee as the water flows through the rocks and makes a buzzing sound.

    How to reach Pacmarhi?

    The nearest airport is Raja Bhoj Airport in  Bhopal (around 222 km) which has daily flight services from Delhi and Mumbai and 13 major cities of India.

     Cabs are available from Bhopal to Pachmarhi. Jabalpur airport to Pachmarhi is also just 300 km

    Pachmarhi is just 54km by road from the Pipariya railway station. Several direct trains link Pipariya with important cities of India.

     If one want to travel by road many state-owned and private buses are available for Pachmarhi from nearby cities like Bhopal, Jabalpur, Nagpur, Indore.

     Stay & Accommodation

     The hill station has numerous hotels and resorts.

    Refereces

    1. https://www.mptourism.com/
    2. https://www.pachmarhi.com/
    3. https://web.archive.org/web/20141028175430/http://www.sify.com/news/fullstory.php?a=jf1u4rjejdc&title=Three_Indian_sites_added_to_UNESCO_list_of_biosphere_reserves
    4. https://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/Climatological%20Tables%201991-2020.pdf
    5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pachmarhi
    6. image courtesy -dreamstime.com

  • Sharavati river basin

    Sharavati river

    Sharavati is one of the well known rivers flowing through Karnataka state ,India and major part of the river basins lies in the western ghats.

    Sharavati river flows through Shivamogga and Uttara Kannada districts of Karnataka. The river is around 128 km long and it joins the Arabian Sea at Honnavar in Uttara Kannada district.

     On its way to Arabian Sea, the Sharavati forms the Jog Falls [ in Siddapur taluk ,Uttarakannada district] where the river falls from a height of 253 m.

    The river is dammed at Linganamakki. This part of the river above the dam is upstream and the remaining is downstream. The Linganamakki dam located in the Sagar taluk has a length of 2.4 km  and was constructed across the Sharavati river in 1964.

     The major tributaries of the river are Nandihole, Haridravathi, Mavinahole, Hilkunji, Yennehole, Hurlihole, and Nagodihole

    Origin of the river and myth

     

      Indian geography and landscapes are intricately connected with mythology, epics and religious sentiments of the country. As Diana .L. Huc describes in her book ‘ India a sacred geography ‘ each and every landscapes including rivers, mountains and forests of this land are elaborately linked to the stories of gods & heroes of myths & epics. The Sharavati river also is not an exception to this sacred connection.

         Sharavati originates at a place called Ambutheertha in the Thirthahalli taluk. According to ancient legend, the Hindu god Rama [ Of epic Ramayana] shot at the ground with his Ambu (arrow) to quench the thirst of his consort sita devi. When his arrow hit the ground, water[ Thirtha] poured out. This location of origin of the River is known as thirthahalli [  which translates into” A hamlet of water”]. The river which originated from an arrow later known as “Sharavati” as “Shara” translates to arrow.

    Indian subcontinent has an amazing number of myths and legends, rituals and festivities connected with its geography & landscape. It denotes that ancient people of India had given supreme reverence to nature and regarded everything they received from nature as gifts of God. In Indian subcontinent the landscapes are not only connected with Hinduism, but also they have been linked to Buddhism, Jainism and various other religions of the subcontinent. If the historical geography of any particular landscape is studied it may point out that the rivers, mountains and other landscapes were part of many literary documents.

    Sharavati river basin- Climate, Biodiversity ,Wild life

    The river basin lies in Uttara Kannada and Shivamogga districts of Karnataka,India.  The  Sharavati river basin gets a large amount of rainfall. Mean annual rainfall ranges from 6000 mm in the western side to 1700 mm in the eastern side of the basin. Monsoon in July fills the river abundantly.

    Generally the climate is cool [22.2degree Celsius]. Humidity exceeds 75% for most times of the year. During the months of monsoon, the relative humidity during the afternoons is approximately 60%.

    The Sharavati river basin is rich in biodiversity. In a survey conducted in the basin, 23 amphibians belonging to the families of Bufonidae, Ichthyophiidae, Microhylidae, Ranidae and Rhacophoridae were recorded.

    The Sharavati waters contain a few special species of fishes which are named after the river.These include:

    Batasio sharavatiensis: A bagrid catfish discovered near Jog Falls, Uttara Kannada district.

    Schistura sharavatiensis: A fish species discovered in Sharavati river near Algod, Shimoga district.

    Two new species of diatoms were also discovered from Hirebhaskeri Dam of Sharavati River in 2011.

    A part of the Sharavati river basin was declared as a wildlife sanctuary on 20 April 1972

    Sharavati wildlife sanctuary

    The river basin is home to many species of plants and animals. Due to the presence of rich biodiversity a part of the Sharavati river basin was declared as a wildlife sanctuary on 20 April 1972.  The wild life sanctuary is spread over an area of 431.23 km2 , it has dense evergreen and semi-evergreen forests. The vegetation here ibnclude evergreen, semi-green and some moist deciduous forests.

     Trees in the evergreen forest include species such as Dipterocarpus indicus, Calophyllum tomentosum, Machilus macrantha, Caryota urens and Aporosa lindleyana. In the semi-evergreen and moist deciduous forests, common species include Lagerstroemia lanceolata, Hopea parviflora, Dalbergia latifolia, Dillenia pentagyna, Careya arborea, Emblica officinalis, Randia sp., Terminalia sp. and Vitex altissima.

    The altitude in the sanctuary varies from 94 m to 1102 m, the highest point being Devarakonda on the southern edge of the sanctuary.

    Linganamakki reservoir

    Linganamakki reservoir, with an area of 128.7 km2 , is a part of this sanctuary. The remaining area has been divided into core zone (74.33 km2.), buffer zone (170.67 km2) and tourism zone (57.53 km2). Honnemaradu is an island on the reservoir formed by the Linganamakki dam. It is located in the Sagar taluk of Shimoga district. This place is popular for water sports, such as canoeing, kayaking and wind surfing.

    The wild life including the animal species is varied in the sanctuary. It is home to the endangered lion-tailed macaque. Other mammals include tiger, leopard (black panther), wild dog, jackal, sloth bear, spotted deer, sambar, barking deer, mouse deer, wild boar, common langur, bonnet macaque, Malabar giant squirrel, giant flying squirrel, porcupine, otter and pangolin.

     Reptiles are also part of the wildlife here and include king cobra, python, rat snake, crocodile and monitor lizard.  Sharavati river basin wild life sanctuary has numerous birds also. Some of the avian species include hornbill, paradise flycatcher, racket-tailed drongo and Indian lories and lorikeets.

    How to reach Sharavati river basin?

    Nearest airport is Mangalore international airport. The distance by road from Manglore to sharavati is 200km. You can also reach from Bangalore airport.[274km].

    References

    • A Walk on the Wild Side, An Information Guide to National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries of Karnataka, Compiled and Edited by Dr. Nima Manjrekar, Karnataka Forest Department, Wildlife Wing, October 2000
    • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharavati